Cover not available
Part of
Writing Systems, Reading Processes, and Cross-Linguistic Influences: Reflections from the Chinese, Japanese and Korean Languages
Edited by Hye K. Pae
[Bilingual Processing and Acquisition 7] 2018
► pp. 99–120

Chapter 5
The complexities of written Chinese and the cognitive-linguistic precursors to reading, with consequent implications for reading interventions

This chapter will review universal and unique cognitive-linguistic precursors to reading acquisition and impairment, such as reading disabilities and dyslexia, in the Chinese language. The chapter will examine research evidence linking phonological awareness, morphological awareness, orthographic awareness, rapid automatized naming (RAN), and visual skills to reading acquisition among children in mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. Understanding these cognitive-linguistic constructs and their mechanisms underlying reading acquisition is essential in order to explain reading impairment. Compared to dyslexic children of alphabetic languages, Chinese children with dyslexia present different and often multiple profiles of cognitive-linguistic deficits, the most dominant being RAN, orthographic awareness, and morphological awareness and the less dominant being phonological awareness. In particular, the review will examine the causes, characteristics, uniqueness or idiosyncrasies found in speakers of Chinese, and consequences of dyslexia in children in the three Chinese societies. Such a review will offer insight into and lay foundations for developing effective evidence-based interventions for children with reading impairment both inside and outside of school. Implications for current evidence-based practices in interventions are also discussed.

Keywords: Chinese language, reading acquisition and difficulties, interventions, dyslexia
Article outline
  • Introduction
  • Features of the Chinese orthography
  • The Chinese script and literacy instruction
  • Cognitive profiles of Chinese dyslexia
    • Orthographic awareness
    • Rapid Automatic Naming (RAN)
    • Morphological awareness
    • Phonological awareness
    • Visual skills
    • Cognitive profiles of dyslexic readers among various Chinese societies
  • Supporting children with reading difficulties
  • Conclusion and future directions
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
Published online: 10 July 2018
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/bpa.7.05kal
References
Adams, M. J.
(1990) Beginning to read: Learning and thinking about print. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.Google Scholar
Bosse, M. L., & Valdois, S.
(2009) Influence of the visual attention span on child reading performance: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Research in Reading, 32(2), 230–253. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. E.
(1983) Categorizing sounds and learning to read: A causal connection. Nature, 30, 419–421. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chan, D. W., Ho, C. S-H., Tsang, S-M., Lee, S-H., & Chung, K. K-H.
(2007) Prevalence, gender ratio, and gender differences in reading-related cognitive abilities among Chinese children with dyslexia in Hong Kong. Educational Studies, 33, 249–265. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chen, X., Anderson, R. C., Li, W., Hao, M., Wu, X., & Shu, H.
(2004) Phonological awareness of bilingual and monolingual Chinese children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 142–51. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chen, H. C., Hsu, C. C., Chang, L. Y., Lin, Y. C., Chang, K. E., & Sung, Y. T.
(2013) Using a radical-derived character e-learning platform to increase knowledge of Chinese characters. Language Learning & Technology, 17(1), 89–106.Google Scholar
Cheung, K., & Bauer, R. S.
(2002) The representation of Cantonese with Chinese characters. Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series, 18, 487.Google Scholar
Cheung, H., Chen, H. C., Lai, C. Y., Wong, O. C., & Hills, M.
(2001) The development of phonological awareness: Effects of spoken language experience and orthography. Cognition, 81(3), 227–241. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chow, B. W. Y., McBride-Chang, C., & Burgess, S.
(2005) Phonological processing skills and early reading abilities in Hong Kong Chinese kindergarteners learning to read English as a second language. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(1), 81–87. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chung, K. K-H.
2018). Understanding and supporting children with dyslexia and late-emerging reading difficulties. In K. J. Kennedy & C. K. Lee Eds. Routledge handbook on schools and schooling in Asia 531 541 London Routledge
Chung, K. K., & Ho, C. S. H.
(2010) Dyslexia in Chinese language: An overview of research and practice. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 15(2), 213–224. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chung, K. K. H., Ho, C. S. H., Chan, D. W., Tsang, S. M., & Lee, S. H.
(2010) Cognitive profiles of Chinese adolescents with dyslexia. Dyslexia, 16, 2–23. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chung, K. K., Ho, C. S. H., Chan, D. W., Tsang, S. M., & Lee, S. H.
(2011) Cognitive skills and literacy performance of Chinese adolescents with and without dyslexia. Reading and Writing, 24(7), 835–859. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
DeFrancis, J.
(1989) Visible speech: The diverse oneness of writing systems. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
Feldman, L. B., & Siok, W. W.
(1997) The role of component function in visual recognition of Chinese characters. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23(3), 776–781.Google Scholar
Foreign Languages Press Beijing
(1989) Chinese characters. Beijing: Author.Google Scholar
Gao, D.-G. & Kao, H. S. R.
(2002) Psycho-geometric analysis of commonly used Chinese characters. In H. S. R. Kao., C.-K. Leong. & D.-G. Gao (Eds), Cognitive Neuroscience Studies of the Chinese Language (pp.195–206). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.Google Scholar
Georgiou, G. K., Parrila, R., & Kirby, J.
(2006) Rapid naming speed components and early reading acquisition. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10(2), 199–220. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gersten, R., & Baker, S.
(2000) What we know about effective instructional practices for English-language learners. Exceptional Children, 66(4), 454–470.DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Grimes, B. F.
(2002) Ethnologue: Languages of the World (14th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International.Google Scholar
Guo, X-C.
(Ed.) (1995) Xian dai Han yu duo gong neng zi dian [Modern Chinese Multi-purpose Dictionary]. Beijing: Zhi shi chu ban she.Google Scholar
Ho, C. S. H.
(2010) Understanding reading disability in Chinese: From basic research to intervention. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), Handbook of Chinese psychology (pp.109–121). Oxford: OUP.Google Scholar
Ho, C. S-H., & Bryant, P.
(1997) Development of phonological awareness of Chinese children in Hong Kong. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 26(1), 109–126. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ho, C. S. H., Chan, D. W. O., Lee, S. H., Tsang, S. M., & Luan, V. H.
(2004) Cognitive profiling and preliminary subtyping in Chinese developmental dyslexia. Cognition, 91, 43–75. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ho, C. S. H., Chan, D. W., Tsang, S., & Lee, S.
(2002) The cognitive profile and multiple-deficit hypothesis in Chinese developmental dyslexia. Developmental Psychology, 38, 543–553. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ho, C. S-H., & Lai, D. N-C.
(1999) Naming-speed deficits and phonological memory deficits in Chinese developmental dyslexia. Learning and Individual Differences, 11, 173–186. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ho, C. S. H., Law, T. P. S., & Ng, P. M.
(2000) The phonological deficit hypothesis in Chinese developmental dyslexia. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 13, 57–79. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ho, C. S. H., Ng, T. T., & Ng, W. K.
(2003) A “radical” approach to reading development in Chinese: The role of semantic radicals and phonetic radicals. Journal of Literacy Research, 35(3), 849–878. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ho, C. S. H., Wong, W. L. S., Lo, C-M., Chan, D. W., Chung, K. K. H. & Lo, S-C.
(2014) Helping children with reading disability in Chinese: The response to intervention approach with effective evidence-based curriculum. In X. Chen., Q. Wang & Y. C. Luo (Eds.), Reading development and difficulties in monolingual and bilingual Chinese children (pp.103–124). Dordrecht: Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ho, C. S. H., Wong, Y. K., Yeung, P. S., Chan, D. W. O., Chung, K. K. H., Lo, S. C., & Luan, H.
(2012) The core components of reading instruction in Chinese. Reading and Writing, 25(4), 857–886. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ho C. S. H., Yau P. W. Y., & Au, A.
(2003) Development of orthographic knowledge and its relationship with reading and spelling among Chinese kindergarten and primary school children. In C. McBride-Chang & H. C. Chen (Eds.), Reading development in Chinese children (pp.51–71). Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Huang, H. S., & Hanley, J. R.
(1994) Phonological awareness and visual skills in learning to read Chinese and English. Cognition, 54, 73–98. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Huang, H., & Hanley, J. R.
(1997) A longitudinal study of phonological awareness, visual skills, and Chinese reading acquisition among first-graders in Taiwan. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20(2), 249–268. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hughes, C. A., & Dexter, D. D.
(2011) Response to intervention: A research-based summary. Theory into Practice, 50(1), 4–11. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kalindi, S. C., McBride, C., Tong, X., Wong, N. L. Y., Chung, K. H. K., & Lee, C. Y.
(2015) Beyond phonological and morphological processing: Pure copying as a marker of dyslexia in Chinese but not poor reading of English. Annals of Dyslexia, 65(2), 53–68. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kang, J. S.
(1993) Analysis of semantics of semantic-phonetic compound characters in modern Chinese. In Y. Chen (Ed.), Information analysis of usage of characters in modern Chinese (pp. 68–83). Shanghai: Shanghai Education Publisher. (in Chinese)Google Scholar
Kuo, L. J., & Anderson, R. C.
(2006) Morphological awareness and learning to read: A cross-language perspective. Educational Psychologist, 41(3), 161–180. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lam, S. S. Y., & McBride-Chang, C.
(2013) Parent-child joint writing in Chinese kindergarteners: Explicit instruction in radical knowledge and stroke writing skills. Writing Systems Research, 5(1), 88–109. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lee, J. R., Hung, D. L., & Tzeng, O.
(2006) Cross-linguistic analysis of developmental dyslexia – Does phonology matter in learning to read Chinese? Language and Linguistics, 7(3), 573–594.Google Scholar
Li, H., Dong, Q., Zhu, J., Liu, J., & Wu, X.
(2009) The role of morphological awareness in language skills development of kindergartener. Psychological Science (in Chinese), 32(6), 1291–1294.Google Scholar
Li, H., Shu, H., McBride-Chang, C., Liu, H., & Peng, H.
(2012) Chinese childrenʹs character recognition: Visuo-orthographic, phonological processing and morphological skills. Journal of Research in Reading, 35(3), 287–307. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Li, C. N., & Thompson, S. A.
1981 Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Lin, D., McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H., Zhang, Y., Li, H., Zhang, J., … & Levin, I.
(2010) Small wins big: Analytic pinyin skills promote Chinese word reading. Psychological Science, 21(8), 1117–1122. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Liu, D., Chen, X., & Chung, K. K.
(2015) Performance in a visual search task uniquely predicts reading abilities in third-grade Hong Kong Chinese children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 19(4), 307–324. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Liu, D., Chen, X., & Wang, Y.
(2016) The impact of visual-spatial attention on reading and spelling in Chinese children. Reading and Writing, 29(7), 1435–1447.DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Liu, I. M., Chuang, C. J., & Wang, S. C.
(1975) Frequency count of 40,000 Chinese words. Taipei: Lucky Books.Google Scholar
Liu, D., Li, H., & Wong, K. S.
2017). The anatomy of the role of morphological awareness in Chinese character learning: The mediation of vocabulary and semantic radical knowledge and the moderation of morpheme family size. Scientific Studies of Reading, 21(3), 210–224. DOI logo
Liu, W. L., Liu, X. P., & Zhang, J. Q.
(2006) A preliminary study of subtypes of Chinese developmental dyslexia. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 38(5), 681–693.Google Scholar
Liu, P. D., & McBride-Chang, C.
(2010) What is morphological awareness? Tapping lexical compounding awareness in Chinese third graders. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(1), 62–73. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lu, M. C.
(2000) The effectiveness of Chinese stem-deriving instruction on elementary students with severely word-recognition difficulties. Bulletin of Special Education, 18, 207–235.Google Scholar
Luan, H.
(2005) The role of morphological awareness among mandarin-speaking and Cantonese speaking children. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong.DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Luo, Y. C., Chen, X., Deacon, S. H., Zhang, J., & Yin, L.
(2013) The role of visual processing in learning to read Chinese characters. Scientific Studies of Reading, 17(1), 22–40. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Manis, F. R., Seidenberg, M. S., & Doi, L. M.
(1999) See Dick RAN: Rapid naming and the longitudinal prediction of reading subskills in first and second graders. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 129–157. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mattingly, I. G.
(1984) Reading, linguistic awareness, and language acquisition. In R. V. J. Downing (Ed.), Language awareness and learning to read (pp. 9–26). New York, NY: Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McBride, C. A.
(2016) Is Chinese special? Four aspects of Chinese literacy acquisition that might distinguish learning Chinese from learning alphabetic orthographies. Educational Psychology Review, 1–27.Google Scholar
McBride-Chang, C., Bialystok, E., Chong, K. K., & Li, Y.
(2004) Levels of phonological awareness in three cultures. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 89(2), 93–111. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mcbride-Chang, C., Chow, B. W., Zhong, Y., Burgess, S., & Hayward, W. G.
(2005) Chinese character acquisition and visual skills in two Chinese scripts. Reading and Writing, 18(2), 99–128. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McBride-Chang, C., Chung, K. K., & Tong, X.
(2011b) Copying skills in relation to word reading and writing in Chinese children with and without dyslexia. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 110(3), 422–433. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McBride-Chang, C., & Kail, R. V.
(2002) Cross-cultural similarities in the predictors of reading acquisition. Child Development, 73, 1392–1407. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McBride-Chang, C., Lam, F., Lam, C., Doo, S., Wong, S. W. L., & Chow, Y. Y. Y.
(2008) Word recognition and cognitive profiles of Chinese pre-school children at-risk for dyslexia through language delay or familial history of dyslexia. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 2112–18.Google Scholar
McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H., Zhou, A., Wat, C. P., & Wagner, R. K.
(2003) Morphological awareness uniquely predicts young childrenʹs Chinese character recognition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 743–751. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McBride-Chang, C., Wagner, R. K., Muse, A., Chow, B. W. Y., & Shu, H.
(2005) The role of morphological awareness in children’s vocabulary acquisition in English. Applied Psycholinguistics, 26, 415–435. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McBride-Chang, C., Zhou, Y., Cho, J.-R., Aram, D., Levin, I., & Tolchinsky, L.
(2011a) Visual spatial skill: A consequence of learning to read? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 109(2), 256–262. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Miles, T. R., & Miles, E.
(1999) Dyslexia: A hundred years on (2nd ed.). Buckingham: Open University Press.Google Scholar
National Reading Panel (US), National Institute of Child Health, & Human Development (US)
(2000) Report of the national reading panel: Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health.Google Scholar
Ogawa, R. T., & Malen, B.
(1991) Towards rigor in reviews of multivocal literatures: Applying the exploratory case study method. Review of Educational Research, 61(3), 265–286. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Packard, J. L.
(2000) The morphology of Chinese: A linguistic and cognitive approach. Cambridge: CUP. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pan, J., McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H., Liu, H., Zhang, Y., & Li, H.
(2011) What is in the naming? A 5-year longitudinal study of early rapid naming and phonological sensitivity in relation to subsequent reading skills in both native Chinese and English as a second language. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(4), 897–908. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pan, J., Song, S., Su, M., McBride, C., Liu, H., Zhang, Y., Li, H., & Shu, H.
(2016) On the relationship between phonological awareness, morphological awareness and Chinese literacy skills: evidence from an 8-year longitudinal study. Developmental Science, 19(6), 982–991.DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Plaza, M., & Cohen, H.
(2007) The contribution of phonological awareness and visual attention in early reading and spelling. Dyslexia, 13(1), 67–76. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rohsenow, J.
(2001) Fifty years of script and written language reform in the P.R.C. Language Policy, 4, 21–43. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rohsenow, J. S.
(2004) Fifty years of script and written language reform in the P.R.C.: The genesis of the language law of 2001. In M. Zhou, & H. Sun. (Eds.), Language policy in the People’s Republic of China: Theory and practice since 1949 (pp. 21–43). Dordrecht: Kluwer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Salter, R., & Smythe, I.
(Eds.) (1997) The international book of dyslexia. London: World Dyslexia Network Foundation and the European Dyslexia Association.Google Scholar
Seymour, P. H.
(1998) Beyond the phonological deficit hypothesis. Child Psychology and Psychiatry Review, 3(01), 22–23. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Shu, H., & Anderson, R. C.
(1997) Role of radical awareness in the character and word acquisition of Chinese children. Reading Research Quarterly, 32, 78–89. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Shu, H., Anderson, R. C., & Wu, N. N.
(2000) Phonetic awareness: Knowledge of orthography-phonology relationships in the character acquisition of Chinese children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 56–62. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Shu, H., Chen, X., Anderson, R. C., Wu, N., & Xuan, Y.
(2003) Properties of school Chinese: Implications for learning to read. Child Development, 74, 27–47. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Shu, H., McBride-Chang, C., Wu, S., & Liu, H.
(2006) Understanding Chinese developmental dyslexia: Morphological awareness as a core cognitive construct. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(1), 122–133. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Shu, H., Peng, H. & McBride-Chang
(2008) Phonological awareness in young Chinese children. Developmental Science, 11(1), 171–181. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Siok, W. T., & Fletcher, P.
(2001) The role of phonological awareness and visual-orthographic skills in Chinese reading acquisition. Developmental Psychology, 37(6), 886–899. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Siok, W. T., Spinks, J. A., Jin, Z., & Tan, L. H.
(2009) Developmental dyslexia is characterized by the co-existence of visuospatial and phonological disorders in Chinese children. Current Biology, 19(19), R890–R892. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F.
(1989) Exposure to print and orthographic processing. Reading Research Quarterly, 24(4), 402–433. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Taylor, I., & Taylor, M. M.
(1995) Writing and Literacy in Chinese, Korean and Japanese. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tilly, W. D.
(2003, December). How many tiers are needed for successful prevention and early intervention? Heartland Area Education Agency’s evolution from four to three tiers. Paper presented at the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities RTI Symposium, Kansas City, MO.
Tong, X., & McBride-Chang, C.
(2010) Developmental models of learning to read Chinese words. Developmental Psychology, 46(6), 1662–1676. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tong, X., McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H., & Wong, A. M.
(2009) Morphological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and spelling errors: Keys to understanding early Chinese literacy acquisition. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13(5), 426–452. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Torgesen, J. K., & Mathes, P. G.
(2000) A basic guide to understanding, assessing, and teaching phonological awareness. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.Google Scholar
Vecera, S. P., & Rizzo, M.
(2003) Spatial attention: Normal processes and their breakdown. Neurologic Clinics, 21(3), 575–607. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wan, Y.-Y.
(1991) Psychology for children’s Chinese character learning. In Z. F. Yang & S. R. Gao. (Eds.), Zhongguoren zhongguoxin: Fazhan yu jiaoxue pian (pp. 403–448). Taipei: Yuan-Liou.Google Scholar
Wang, L. C., & Yang, H. M.
(2015) The subtypes of Chinese children with developmental dyslexia. Bulletin of Special Education, 40(1), 55–83.Google Scholar
Ward-Lonergan, J. M., & Duthie, J. K.
(2016) Intervention to improve expository reading comprehension skills in older children and adolescents with language disorders. Topics in Language Disorders, 36(1), 52–64.DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wimmer, H., Mayringer, H., & Landerl, K.
(2000) The double-deficit hypothesis and difficulties in learning to read a regular orthography. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(4), 668–680. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wolf, M., & Katzir-Cohen, T.
(2001) Reading fluency and its intervention. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 211–239. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wong, A. M. Y., Kidd, J. C., Ho, C. S. H., & Au, T. K. F.
(2010) Characterizing the overlap between SLI and dyslexia in Chinese: The role of phonology and beyond. Scientific Studies of Reading, 14(1), 30–57. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wong, W. L. S., Xiao, M. X., & Chung, K. K. H.
(2013) Issues of culture and language in developmental disorders: The case of dyslexia in Chinese learners. In C. R. Marshall (Ed.), Current issues in developmental disorders (pp.153–170). London: Psychological PressGoogle Scholar
Yeung, P-S., Ho, C. S.-H., Wong, Y-K., Chan, D. W.-O., Chung, K. K-H., & Lo, L-Y.
(2013) Longitudinal predictors of Chinese word reading and spelling among elementary grade students. Applied Psycholinguistics, 34, 1245–1277. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Yin, W. G., & Weekes, B. S.
(2003) Dyslexia in Chinese: Clues from cognitive neuropsychology. Annals of Dyslexia, 53(1), 255–279. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Yuan, C., & Huang, C.
(1998) Chinese morphemes and compounds: A corpus study. Applications of Languages and Writing Systems, 3, 7–12.Google Scholar
Zhang, J., & McBride-Chang, C.
(2011) Diversity in Chinese literacy acquisition. Writing System Research, 3(1), 87–102. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zhang, S., Wang, X., Wen, J., Qin, Y., & Zhong, Y.
(2006) A probabilistic feature based maximum entropy model for Chinese named entity recognition. In Y. Matsumoto, R. W. Sproat, K-F. Wong, & M. Zhang (Eds.), Computer processing of oriental languages. Beyond the orient: The research challenges ahead (pp.189–196). Heidelberg: Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zhou, Y. G.
(1978) Xiandai hanzihong Shengpangde biaoyin gongneng wenti [To what degree are the “phonetics” of present-day Chinese characters still phonetic?]. Zhongguo Yu-wen, 146, 172–177.Google Scholar
Ziegler, J. C., & Goswami, U.
(2005) Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory. Psychological Bulletin, 131(1), 3–29. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cited by

Cited by 1 other publications

Kalindi, Sylvia Chanda & Kevin Kien Hoa Chung
2018. The Impact of Morphological Awareness on Word Reading and Dictation in Chinese Early Adolescent Readers With and Without Dyslexia. Frontiers in Psychology 9 DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 9 may 2023. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.