Index

• acceptability209–210, 294, 302, 308, 310, 312–314, 321–322, 325–327, 329–338

• acceptability experiment336

• accommodation22, 32–33, 35–36, 49, 359, 369, 371, 390

• acts of differentiation383, 386, 396

• adjectival modification98

• adverbial106, 115, 143, 155–157, 164, 171, 269, 296–300

• affixes83, 110, 204, 209, 280

• American occupation13

• Americans7, 14, 190, 272, 363, 390

• Amoyxiv, 14, 23, 25, 30, 256, 296, 351–352

• ancestorsxiv, 42, 292, 349, 354, 359, 388, 408

• approximation32, 105

• articulatory effort241, 248

• aspect10, 45, 115, 120, 122–123, 125–131, 133, 139, 159, 199, 201, 203–204, 211, 240, 247, 292, 341–342, 358, 384, 400–401

• aspirated26, 70, 73

• assimilation46, 382

• attitudes3, 5, 10, 17, 22, 44–45, 47, 49–50, 193, 198, 246, 256, 258–259, 263–264, 266, 276, 278, 282–284, 289, 291, 331, 348, 350, 356, 400, 402–403

• authentic2–3, 10, 16, 36–37, 45, 47, 50, 256, 287, 353–354, 356–357, 367–370, 380–381, 384, 388, 390, 394, 408

• authenticity10, 37, 45, 283, 347, 353, 367–370, 375, 382, 399, 403, 408

• autonomy256, 338–339

• bag-of-words258

• Banawe35, 385

• barbarian13, 23

• Bayesian mixed-effects regression261

• benefactive markers115, 137

• binary13, 23, 346, 350, 365, 381, 387, 389

• Binondo8, 35, 89, 385

• bloodline13, 351

• borrowing scale269, 288

• Cantonese8, 11, 13–14, 24, 26, 28–29, 37–38, 40–44, 46–47

• causative115, 134, 136–137, 148–153, 198, 200–201, 204

• causative markers4–5

• Chinatown8, 266, 288, 380, 385

• Chinese Civil War12

• Chinese Cultural Revolution33

• Chinese Exclusion Act14, 363

• Chinese Filipinoxiv, 14, 24, 164, 181, 271, 386, 426

• Chinese mestizos12

• Chinese migration2

• Chinese newspapers28

• Chinese sojourners377

• Chinese-Filipino10, 13, 294, 365, 393

• Chinese-ness10, 12, 18, 36, 247, 256, 287, 359, 381, 391

• Chinese-Tagalog-Spanish Pidgin8

• Chinoy379, 386, 389, 391–392

• church13, 23, 29, 36, 38, 91, 112, 169, 195, 352, 370–371, 381

• citizenship363, 396

• clan association meetings28

• classifiers85, 87

• code-switching6, 8, 24–25, 29, 37–38, 52, 206, 278, 362, 393

• cognitive effort277

• cognitive load277–278

• colonization404

• community empowerment409

• comparative102–103

• Conditional Random Fields291–292

• congruence239, 278–280, 330, 353

• conjunctions5, 52, 162, 168–171, 175–176, 180–181, 186, 190, 202, 249, 251, 255–256, 258–259, 262–265, 268–270, 272–274, 276–278, 280–292, 339, 464

• consciousness268, 272, 283, 291–292, 337–339, 363, 399, 402

• conservativexiv, 2, 15, 18–19, 25–26, 28–29, 33, 39, 47, 204, 256, 271, 287–288, 353, 358–360, 364, 378–381, 384–387, 389–390, 393, 406

• constraints3, 91–92, 204, 292, 310

• construction5, 15, 28, 89–92, 98, 100, 102–104, 112, 136, 142, 149–151, 201, 203–204, 249, 273, 286, 294, 297, 299, 308, 312, 317, 397, 402, 404–406

• contact-induced9, 280

• conventionalization244

• copula115, 142, 146, 154–155, 160, 203

• corpus52, 158–159, 168, 199, 204, 255, 258–259, 302

• cultural erosion45

• Dative153

• decolonial2, 15, 342, 404, 408

• deliberate adoption12

• demonstratives83, 87, 198

• derivational prefixes111, 115

• determiners83–85, 91

• dialect of Hokkien401

• diaspora11, 399

• diglossia22, 26

• diphthongs69, 71, 224, 282

• distributional pattern157, 200, 237, 295, 300, 307, 316–319, 323, 325, 329–330, 333

• ditransitive136, 148, 152

• Downtown Manila288

• Downtowner385, 406

• durative129, 133, 204

• ecology4, 6–9, 22, 240, 369

• educational policies23, 272

• emic16, 19, 22, 345, 348

• Englishxiv, 2, 4, 6–9, 14–17, 19, 21, 23–26, 28–30, 33, 35–44, 46–50, 52, 56, 61, 68, 70, 73–74, 76, 80–82, 84–85, 88–91, 93–96, 99, 102, 107, 112–114, 125, 129, 132–134, 143, 146–147, 158, 162, 164, 168, 171–172, 175–176, 180, 186–188, 191–192, 198–199, 201–204, 206–209, 211–215, 217–218, 228–229, 231–234, 236–237, 239, 241–244, 246–249, 251, 255–256, 258–259, 261–262, 264–265, 268–270, 272–274, 278–284, 286–288, 290, 292, 298–299, 301–304, 308, 311–312, 320, 330, 334, 337–339, 341, 343–345, 348, 352, 356, 358, 360, 363, 365–369, 371, 373, 380, 382–386, 388–390, 397, 399–401, 408, 428, 464

• enregisterment268, 272–273, 347, 351

• erasure405

• ethnic Chinese11–14, 96

• ethnicityxiv, 13, 36, 204, 210–211, 245, 334, 384, 386, 396, 402–403, 406, 408

• ethnography4, 32, 351, 365, 376, 386

• ethnolinguistic12, 22, 28, 32, 201, 203, 247, 256, 277, 339, 401, 406

• exclusion13, 23, 289–290

• experimental method302

• experiments295, 302, 336–338

• ‘expression of proficiency’247, 335

• fieldwork4, 13, 32, 204, 246, 259, 292, 337, 342

• Fil-Chi366, 371, 383, 385–386, 388–389, 393

• Filipinization14, 23, 240, 270, 353, 384

• Filipino caregivers39

• Filipino citizenship14, 136, 388, 391–392

• Filipino-Chinese13–14, 35, 99, 140, 164, 181, 271, 359, 366, 371, 385, 388–389, 392–393, 396, 426

• first-generation25

• formal7, 17, 26, 28, 38, 40, 43, 48, 85, 202, 248, 289, 351–352, 356

• fractal recursivity355, 383

• Fujian16, 23, 25, 270, 392

• gender16, 32, 204, 206, 209–212, 242, 244–246, 248–249, 251, 255, 259–260, 263–264, 266, 268, 281–282, 291, 300–303, 314, 331, 334, 375, 380, 396, 402–403

• General American English24, 36

• generalized linear mixed-effects model218, 312

• generational change4–5

• genuine Intsik45, 47

• globalization47

• grammatical sketch52, 249

• grassroots10

• habitual131, 133, 186, 199

• Hokaglish8, 382

• Hokkienxiv, 2–4, 8–9, 11, 13–19, 21, 23–26, 28–31, 33, 35–50, 52, 56, 61, 68, 70, 73–74, 76, 80–85, 87, 89–99, 101–108, 110, 112–114, 116–131, 133, 136–139, 142, 146–147, 150–157, 159, 161, 164, 168–171, 174–175, 180–181, 186–188, 191–192, 194, 198–204, 206–209, 211–214, 217–218, 224–226, 228, 237, 241, 243, 247–249, 251–252, 255–256, 258–259, 261–266, 268–272, 274, 276, 278–288, 290–292, 295–299, 301–304, 308, 311–312, 330–332, 334–335, 338–339, 341–345, 348–356, 358–363, 365–370, 372, 375, 379–380, 382, 384–390, 392–394, 396–397, 399–406, 408–409, 428, 439, 464

• Hokkien-dominant Lánnang‑uè348, 361, 394

• Hokkien-exclusive Lánnang‑uè352, 354, 357, 379, 388

• homogeneity5, 15, 221, 371, 400

• Huakiaú120, 370, 384, 388–389, 428

• huan-nâ11, 13

• huan-ná-gòng17

• hybrid Hokkien45, 430

• Hybrid Hokkien45, 430

• hyper-standard35

• iconization351, 353, 358

• identityxiv, 4–5, 10–12, 15, 18–19, 24, 32, 38, 40, 42, 44–47, 159, 202, 204, 213, 240, 245, 247–249, 252, 256, 258–259, 263–264, 266, 271–274, 277, 282–283, 286–289, 291, 294, 301–302, 306, 339, 345–346, 358, 375, 386, 391, 393–394, 396, 399–400, 402–404, 408, 464

• ideological stances343, 365

• ideologies3, 5, 9–10, 13–14, 17, 48, 52, 342–343, 346, 348, 350, 354, 363, 369, 375, 382, 390, 394, 397, 400, 402, 406

• immigrants8–9, 11–14, 16, 25, 30, 92, 99, 111, 141, 191, 270, 288–289, 363, 379, 381, 387, 426, 428

• inchoative123, 128–129, 133, 143

• indexical field334, 339, 346–348, 370, 376

• indexicality342, 346–347, 375, 394, 405

• Indigenous6–10, 13

• inferior5, 45, 47, 50, 102, 349, 351, 361, 370, 378, 382

• International Phonetic Alphabetxiv

• intransitive verb134

• intraspeaker consistency220–222, 226–227, 230, 232, 315–316, 318, 321, 324–325

• intsik12

• iterative131, 133, 159, 199, 201, 279

• Jinjiangxiv, 76, 292

• Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino (KWF)40

• konyò331–333, 338, 374

• Kristang12

• Labovian principles210, 301

• LanCorp52, 258

• language confidence43

• language contact6, 8–9, 206, 210–211, 244, 269, 281, 301, 334

• language death19

• language development243, 286, 335

• language ecology6

• language use5, 16, 21–22, 28–29, 32, 36, 41, 48, 213, 286, 294, 343, 387, 396–397, 400, 402

• language-elsewhere26, 350

• languaging201, 339, 342, 345, 348, 351–352, 358, 382, 390, 394, 397

• Lannangxiv, 2, 4–5, 10–19, 21–33, 35–45, 47, 49–50, 52–53, 56, 61, 76, 101, 114–115, 140, 151, 154, 162, 173, 179, 182, 188, 201–203, 221, 228, 240, 247, 249, 252, 255–256, 258–260, 264–266, 270–271, 273, 277, 282–283, 286–290, 292, 294, 299, 302–303, 348–349, 351–356, 358–362, 364–379, 381–387, 389–394, 396–397, 399–401, 403–406, 408, 426

• Lannang community13, 22–23, 27, 204, 240, 270, 283, 351, 381, 387, 399

• Lannang identity13, 19, 240, 248, 283, 390

• Lannang Manifesto11, 14

• Lannang school381, 383, 385, 389

• Lannang schools12, 28, 162, 240, 383–385

• Lannang Symposium11

• lateral violence17–18

• legitimatexiv, 2–3, 10, 13, 15, 18–19, 47, 50, 280, 343, 397

• legitimization19, 394

• lexical choice255, 292

• lexicon5, 50, 52, 56, 61, 203, 212, 214, 241, 249, 251, 255–256, 258, 277, 283, 285, 291–292, 300, 304, 339, 397

• lingua franca28, 42, 428

• linguistic categorizations403

• linguistic discrimination6, 17, 35, 358, 369, 394, 400, 403

• linguistic ecology6

• linguistic ecosystem19, 21, 40, 50

• linguistic genocide18

• linguistic independence21, 285–286, 335

• linguistic innovation210, 243, 279, 282

• linguistic insecurity44

• linguistic repertoire22

• linguistic resources28, 201, 203, 247, 277, 285–286, 335–336, 348, 367, 401

• linguistic structure50

• linguistic styles333, 347, 375–377, 394, 402–404

• Macanese12

• Mainland China8, 12, 18, 35, 288, 349, 354, 356, 378, 383, 386

• Mainlander25, 35–36, 47, 357, 369, 386–390, 392

• Mainlanders18, 26, 35, 272–273, 287, 354, 356–357, 365, 369, 371, 378, 380, 388–391

• mainstream4, 44, 76, 209, 221, 223, 234, 242–243, 246–248, 270, 292, 300, 311, 313–316, 319, 321, 325, 330–331, 333–336, 346, 358, 365

• Mandarin4, 8, 13–14, 16, 23–24, 26, 28, 30, 33, 35–45, 47, 50, 52, 68, 80, 91, 173–174, 189, 202–204, 206–208, 212–214, 217–218, 228, 237, 240, 247–249, 257, 271, 274, 278, 287, 289–290, 296–299, 301–304, 308, 311–312, 320, 330, 334, 338–339, 347, 352, 369, 379, 383, 387–388, 393–394, 401, 428

• Manilaxiv, 2–6, 8–10, 13, 15–16, 18–19, 21–24, 26–27, 31–32, 35, 44, 50, 52–53, 70, 258–259, 263, 266–268, 274, 280, 285, 288, 348, 350, 352, 365, 368, 377, 382–383, 385, 390, 394, 399, 428, 464

• marginalization10, 12, 15, 397

• Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm261

• minimal pairs70, 80

• mixed languagexiv, 2–3, 5, 14–19, 21, 23, 25, 28–29, 31, 37–39, 41, 45, 47–48, 52, 206, 212, 252, 270–271, 301, 332, 341, 345, 348, 361, 364–374, 385, 388, 390, 409, 428

• mixed language style19, 349

• mixed-blood16

• mixed-effects regression model217–218

• modality107, 115, 118–120

• monolingual speech communities245

• morphology5, 50, 203, 244, 274, 280, 284, 300

• multilingual practicesxiv, 17, 19, 38, 341, 363

• n + 1st order indexicality347

• narrations4

• nasalization9, 70

• nasals70

• nationalist14, 23, 272

• Native Fool384, 394

• Native language36

• negation56, 115–116, 118–119, 121–122, 139–142, 186, 203

• negotiation5, 12, 240, 280, 283, 397, 405–406

• neocolonial3

• neutral tone76, 79–80

• New Visitors379–380, 387, 391

• noun phrase79, 83, 87, 92, 97, 101, 104, 110, 113, 115, 131, 146, 148, 159, 162, 164, 174, 176, 178, 180, 186, 192, 195, 204, 249

• noun phrases52, 110, 189, 204, 294

• numbers93–96, 107, 204

• ordinal96

• orthography52–53, 80, 204, 249, 339

• Our People’s Language5, 19

• Overseas Chinese371, 386, 388–389, 392, 396

• ownership408

• part-of-speech52, 258, 291–292

• passive constructions149

• pattern extension241, 248

• Peranakans12

• perceptionxiv, 2, 26, 38, 44, 49, 201, 203, 241, 249, 283, 389

• perfective aspect123, 128

• persona28, 372–373, 378–381, 383–385, 394, 396

• personae272, 277, 282, 342, 375–377, 381, 383, 385–386, 394, 396, 405–406

• personal pronouns79, 107–108, 202, 210

• Philippine English7–8, 10, 15, 24, 240, 249, 287, 399

• Philippine Hokkien18, 428

• Phoneme inventory69

• phonological phrase80

• phonological variation5, 290, 292

• phonology5, 24–25, 50, 52, 69, 203, 242, 292, 339, 397

• Phonotactics72

• plural9, 11, 83–84, 89–92, 107

• POGOs11, 377–380, 390–391

• postcolonial3

• post-modification100–101, 179, 201, 405

• pre-Cultural Revolution287

• pre-modification98–100, 201, 405

• prepositions5, 52, 158–162, 164, 168, 249, 251, 255–256, 258–259, 265–270, 272–274, 276–278, 280–290, 292, 464

• prestige26

• pride22, 43

• production experiment304, 306, 336

• proficiency9, 22–23, 33, 37, 40–42, 44, 47, 49–50, 206–207, 209, 211–213, 217–218, 220, 224–226, 228, 233–234, 237, 244–249, 251–252, 255–256, 258–259, 263–266, 268, 284–285, 287, 290–292, 294–295, 300–303, 307–308, 311–314, 318, 320–321, 325, 327–330, 334–339, 341, 358, 362, 382, 400–401, 464

• prosodic variables204, 207–209, 245, 248

• prosodic variation204, 211, 245–246, 248–249, 301, 312

• Protestant Lannangs256

• pure2–3, 9, 13–15, 18, 23, 25, 45, 47, 50, 100, 108, 116, 201, 204, 206, 252, 271, 287–288, 341–342, 350–351, 354, 361–365, 368, 370, 375, 379, 381, 387–389, 391, 400, 409

• purist ideology351

• quantifiers87–88

• Race13

• random5, 202–204, 225, 228, 234, 249, 255, 261, 274, 276, 278, 311–313, 318, 320–321, 325, 327–329, 337–338, 401–402, 428, 452

• real Lannang13, 351, 381–382

• reclamation4, 18, 404

• reduplicated113, 131, 142–143, 158, 201, 204

• reflexive pronouns108

• religious7, 13, 16, 29–30, 42, 256, 266, 291

• resultative marker115

• resultative particle138–139

• Sangleys12

• secret language14, 240, 271, 366, 371

• semiotic2–3, 353, 373, 376, 379, 384, 391, 393, 396

• social meaning207, 241, 247, 282, 285, 332, 335–338, 348, 365, 369, 372, 374, 396, 405

• social networks245, 256

• social practice4, 21

• social transformation404

• social types5, 342, 347, 375–376, 381, 386, 388, 393–394, 396–397, 402, 405–406

• socialization256, 355

• sociocultural12

• sociolinguistic complexity48, 408

• sociolinguistic interviews4

• sociolinguistic situation2, 5, 19, 21–22, 25, 27, 47

• sociolinguistic variation406

• sonorant73, 241

• sonority241–242, 249

• sound change210

• source language variant68, 255, 261, 263

• source languages2, 18, 21, 49–50, 61, 198, 200, 206–207, 209, 211–212, 217, 228, 240, 246–249, 251, 255, 262, 265, 268, 274, 278–279, 284–286, 290–292, 295, 299–301, 303, 311–312, 318, 320–321, 325, 334–335, 337–339, 341, 400–401

• Southern Chinese11–12

• Southern Min8, 14–15, 23, 207, 352, 379

• spread18, 206, 209, 214–215, 217, 219–220, 222, 225–226, 228, 231, 236, 239–240, 248–249, 294, 300, 311, 314–315, 317, 321–323, 329–330, 339, 341, 401

• stability204, 206, 209, 211, 215, 217, 219–221, 225, 236, 239–240, 244, 248–249, 294, 300, 311, 314–315, 318, 321, 329–330, 338, 341, 401

• stance2, 35–36, 188, 201, 211, 246, 287, 349, 354, 371, 386–387, 391, 397, 402, 404, 406

• stance-taking246

• standard Cantonese24

• standard language3, 350, 363, 375, 396

• stereotype12, 101, 256, 358, 361, 373

• stereotypes12, 101, 373, 376, 394, 397

• storytelling342–343

• stress5, 15, 74, 80–82, 204, 206–209, 214–217, 219, 222–225, 239–240, 242–249, 255, 282, 339, 391, 452, 464

• style-shifting16, 362

• stylistic practice243, 277–278, 282, 332, 337

• suffix89–92, 115, 124, 133, 199, 204, 209

• superlative104–105

• Swadesh list61

• syntactic variation5, 292, 294, 300, 312, 334, 337

• syntax5, 50, 203, 212, 294, 301, 334, 338–339, 345, 397

• Tagalogxiv, 2, 4, 6–9, 14–19, 21, 23–26, 28–30, 33, 35–44, 46–50, 52, 56, 61, 68, 74, 76, 80–82, 84, 90–91, 96, 99–106, 108–109, 111–114, 116, 120, 122–124, 128–131, 133–134, 146–147, 153–154, 158, 164, 168–176, 178–180, 182, 186–190, 192–196, 198, 201–204, 206–209, 211–215, 217–218, 228–229, 231–234, 236–237, 239–241, 243–244, 246–249, 251, 255–256, 258–259, 261–262, 264–266, 268–270, 272–274, 277–284, 286–288, 290, 292, 298–299, 301–304, 308, 311–312, 320, 330, 334, 337–339, 341, 343–345, 348, 352, 356, 358, 360, 363, 365–368, 373, 380, 382, 384, 388–390, 393, 397, 399–401, 404, 408, 428, 464

• Taidiokâ12, 380, 386, 388

• Taishanese11, 24, 26, 28–29, 37–38, 40–44, 46–47

• The Lannang Archives11, 53

• thematic analysis5, 349

• Thomasites7

• tone5, 74, 76–80, 108, 204, 206–209, 215–219, 226–228, 230–234, 236–237, 239–244, 246–249, 255, 277, 287, 339

• tone distribution204, 208, 248

• tone sandhi76, 215

• topicalization153

• translanguaging362

• triphthongs69, 71

• tshûtsi-â13

• tsiâ lánnáng13

• Tsinoy14, 386–387, 389, 391–393, 396

• typology403

• United States7, 14, 363

• unruly offshore Chinese gambler378–381, 386, 396

• unsystematic5, 276, 337, 369

• Uptowner385

• valency134–137

• variabilityxiv, 2–6, 9, 15, 18, 23, 25, 27, 30–32, 41–43, 47–48, 50, 200–201, 203–204, 206–207, 210–211, 217, 234, 244–246, 248–249, 251, 255, 260, 262, 265, 268–270, 272–273, 291–292, 294, 301, 311, 317, 319, 322–323, 339, 341–343, 345–346, 348, 368, 375–376, 379, 391, 394, 396–397, 400–404, 406

• variable3, 15, 19, 50, 70–71, 78–79, 89, 201, 203, 207, 211, 215, 217–220, 237, 247, 249, 251–252, 255, 259, 261, 272, 274, 284–285, 294, 311–315, 334–337, 339, 348, 375, 389, 394, 396–397, 448

• variation2–6, 9–11, 17–19, 21–22, 43, 47–50, 52, 61, 68, 70, 74, 82, 87, 97, 108, 143, 146, 164, 181, 188, 200–204, 206–207, 209–212, 217–221, 223, 226–228, 230–233, 236, 239, 242–246, 248–249, 251–252, 255–256, 259, 261, 265–266, 268, 272–274, 277–278, 280–285, 287–288, 290–292, 294–295, 300–301, 312–315, 317–318, 322, 325, 327–339, 341, 394, 397, 399–404, 406, 408

• variationist2–3, 5, 15–16, 24, 27, 50, 52, 210, 212, 242, 245, 251, 258, 282, 337, 346, 399, 406

• verb phrases52, 107, 123, 139, 142, 144, 204

• vernacular25

• vocabularyxiv, 25, 61, 68, 88, 241, 255, 271, 278, 285, 287, 345, 353, 367, 389

• Westernization353

• wh-in-situ200, 295–296, 302, 308, 311, 313–314, 320, 327, 332, 334

• wh-questions298, 304–305

• widespread40, 207, 209–210, 220, 226, 229, 231, 233, 239–241, 243, 248–249, 281, 300, 318, 322, 329, 338–339, 391

• word order137, 147–148, 203, 269, 292

• yes-no questions153, 155