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John Benjamins Publishing Company
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JB code
FTL 10 Eb
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9789027260406
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10.1075/ftl.10
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2020040073
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FTL
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2405-6944
Figurative Thought and Language
10
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Producing Figurative Expression
Theoretical, experimental and practical perspectives
01
ftl.10
01
https://benjamins.com
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https://benjamins.com/catalog/ftl.10
1
B01
John Barnden
Barnden, John
John
Barnden
University of Birmingham
2
B01
Andrew Gargett
Gargett, Andrew
Andrew
Gargett
Open University
01
eng
557
viii
549
LAN009030
v.2006
CFG
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JB Subject Scheme
LIN.COGN
Cognition and language
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.DISC
Discourse studies
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.PRAG
Pragmatics
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.PSYLIN
Psycholinguistics
06
01
This collection contains a selection of recent work on people’s production of figurative language (metaphoric, ironic, metonymic, hyperbolic, ...) and similarly of figurative expression in visual media and artefact design. The articles illuminate issues such as why and under what circumstances people produce figurative expression and how it is moulded by their aims. By focusing on production, the intention is to help stimulate more academic research on it and redress historically lower levels of published work on generation than on understanding of figurative expression. The contributions stretch across various academic disciplines—mainly psychology, cognitive linguistics and applied linguistics, but with a representation also of philosophy and artificial intelligence—and across different types of endeavour—theoretical investigation and model building, experimental studies, and applications focussed work (for instance, figurative expression in product design and online support groups). There is also a wide-ranging introductory chapter that touches on areas outside the scope of the contributed articles and discusses difficult issues such as a complex interplay of production and understanding.
05
The edited volume “Producing Figurative Expression” presents research into the production of metaphor, irony, hyperbole, and other forms of figurative expressions across discourse domains, disciplines, and potentially also cultures. With this, the book sets the agenda for new lines of investigation in the study of figurative expression production.
Britta C. Brugman, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, in Metaphor and the Social World 12:2 (2022).
05
To conclude, this volume is a truly necessary resource for anyone interested in figurative language, and in particular, its production. Since the research on figurative expressions has been overwhelmingly focused on its comprehension, rather than on its production, this volume fills a substantial gap in the literature by uniting interdisciplinary approaches which use a wide variety of methods and suggest possible methodological obstacles in metaphor production studies. There is no doubt that this book will directly inspire impactful future research on metaphor production.
Ana Werkmann Horvat, University of Osijek, Journal of Pragmatics 184 (2021)
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2
Miscellaneous
1
01
Preface
1
A01
John Barnden
Barnden, John
John
Barnden
2
A01
Andrew Gargett
Gargett, Andrew
Andrew
Gargett
10
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JB code
ftl.10.01bar
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34
34
Chapter
2
01
Introduction
1
A01
John Barnden
Barnden, John
John
Barnden
University of Birmingham
2
A01
Andrew Gargett
Gargett, Andrew
Andrew
Gargett
Open University
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.p1
35
106
72
Section header
3
01
Section 1. General empirical studies, with main focus on metaphor
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.02kat
35
54
20
Chapter
4
01
Producing metaphor (and other forms of non-literal language) in the laboratory
Structural and pragmatic effects as seen from the perspective of an experimental psycholinguist
1
A01
Albert N. Katz
Katz, Albert N.
Albert N.
Katz
The University of Western Ontario
20
life event generation task
20
online discussion task
20
passage completion task
20
vehicle completion task
01
In this chapter I argue for the utility of studying nonliteral language production in the laboratory. Three aspects of nonliteral language production were provided as examples: first, inducing non-literal language in interactive communication (and identifying features of the produced language); second, using production techniques to identify the discourse context in which nonliteral language emerges and, finally, examining how production techniques can inform about the basic cognitive mechanisms that underlie metaphor usage.
10
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JB code
ftl.10.03ken
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84
30
Chapter
5
01
Metaphor and one-off pictures
Touch and vision
1
A01
John M. Kennedy
Kennedy, John M.
John M.
Kennedy
University of Toronto
20
blind
20
children
20
edge
20
line
20
metaphor
20
outline
20
picture
20
surface
20
tactile drawings
01
All representational media support tropes. This chapter considers pictures and asks how <i>pictorial metaphors</i> can be devised by people with relatively little experience in the medium. The examples considered are raised-line drawings devised by blind children and adults. In some, the shapes of objects are anomalous but apt. In others the use of a line contrasts with its use in outline drawings – for example, <i>atmospheric</i> lines surround a target object. The blind and sighted concur on the meaning of pictorial metaphors. The theory of metaphor in drawings presented here treats perception, outline, realistic shape and departures from realism. Pictures have primary meanings, and metaphoric pictures require secondary meanings.
10
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JB code
ftl.10.04mus
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104
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Chapter
6
01
Metaphor production and metaphor interpretation
1
A01
Andreas Musolff
Musolff, Andreas
Andreas
Musolff
University of East Anglia
20
corpus
20
creativity
20
discourse history
20
interpretation
20
metaphor production
20
metaphor reception
20
nation as body/ person
20
questionnaire survey
20
variation
01
Metaphor production and interpretation are intricately connected: the former has the latter as its ostensive target; however, interpretation processes can trigger new metaphor formulations which were unforeseen by the original speaker and would have to count as new productions. This paper looks at corpus- and survey-based evidence of innovative interpretative metaphor use that changes the default meanings of established figurative constructions. Specifically, we look at interpretation-induced changes in the meaning of corporeal metaphors, on the basis of a (1) corpus of British political discourse and (2) a questionnaire survey of more than 1000 respondents from 31 linguistic backgrounds in 10 countries. <br />The corpus-based evidence presented in the first part consists of metaphor-production data that show how situational variation in metaphor use can over time create a semantic-pragmatic drift that changes the dominant meaning of a conventional metaphor expression, thus illustrating diachronic variation. The questionnaire survey, which forms the material for the second part reveals four distinct models for <sc>body</sc>-focused readings (i.e. <sc>nation as geobody, as hierarchical functional whole, as part of speaker’s body, as part of larger body</sc>), plus further <sc>person</sc>-focused readings. These data show synchronic variation. <br />By highlighting significant variation, both data sets put in question the standard theory model of ‘automatic’ metaphor processing and extension. Instead, they indicate a strong production element in metaphor interpretation – and of interpretive aspects in metaphor production.
10
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JB code
ftl.10.05ojh
105
126
22
Chapter
7
01
On the role of perceptual similarity in producing visual metaphors
1
A01
Amitash Ojha
Ojha, Amitash
Amitash
Ojha
Indian Institute of Technology Jammu
2
A01
Bipin Indurkhya
Indurkhya, Bipin
Bipin
Indurkhya
Jagiellonian University
20
conceptual metaphor
20
perceptual similarity
20
production of metaphor
20
visual metaphors
01
We explore here the role of perceptual similarity in producing visual metaphors. In the first part of the study, we characterize visual metaphors and show how perceptual similarity is used in various kinds of visual metaphors appearing in advertisements. In the second part, we present two studies that show that perceptual similarity is intuitively recognized, and shape-based perceptual similarity is preferred for pictorial metaphors. Finally, in the third part, we propose a system to generate visual metaphors based on algorithmic perceptual similarity.
10
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JB code
ftl.10.p2
107
216
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Section header
8
01
Section 2. General empirical studies – other
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.06col
127
174
48
Chapter
9
01
On why people don’t say what they mean
Production of figurative formulaic language
1
A01
Herbert L. Colston
Colston, Herbert L.
Herbert L.
Colston
University of Alberta
20
comprehension
20
ecological validity
20
figurative
20
formulaic language
20
gratitude acknowledgment
20
human experimentation
20
language understanding
20
pragmatic effects
20
pragmatics
20
production
20
psychology
20
routine formulas
01
The study addresses two problems with recent psycholinguistic research on why people don’t say what they mean, (1) possible underrepresentation in research studies of types of figurative language found in everyday talk, and (2) potential ecological validity problems due to using standard psycholinguistic experimental methodologies and inauthentic language materials. In three experiments, these problems were addressed using authentic productions of a relatively unexplored figurative language type – formulaic language, specifically <i>gratitude acknowledgements</i>, which cover a range of figurativity (e.g., “don’t worry about it”, through, “anytime”), often using hyperbole as part of their functioning – a key focus of the present study. The results demonstrate that speakers use figurative gratitude acknowledgements to achieve the pragmatic effects of politeness and esteem display as well as fondness expression, which are not achieved to the same extents by nonfigurative gratitude acknowledgements. The particular pragmatics of this figurative form, the influence of these pragmatic effects on some theoretical questions, and the broader implications of inclusion of new figurative language forms, as well as authentic language items and methods, in research on figurative language production and pragmatics, are discussed.
10
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JB code
ftl.10.07erv
175
210
36
Chapter
10
01
How nice does it sound?
An argumentative approach to the affective aspects of irony production
1
A01
Francesca Ervas
Ervas, Francesca
Francesca
Ervas
University of Cagliari
20
argumentation
20
emotions
20
irony
20
sarcasm
01
The chapter presents irony as a form of the <i>reductio ad absurdum</i> argument having a specific emotional charge, which cannot be found either in literal arguments or in other arguments containing figurative language. The claim of the chapter is that irony production depends on the ironist’s ability to convey the emotional charge together with the point she invites the addressee(s) to infer. An empirical study is presented aiming (1) to understand whether and when participants produce (non-sarcastic/sarcastic) ironic vs. literal arguments having a positive vs. negative emotional charge and (2) to check whether and when participants revise their own (non-sarcastic/sarcastic) ironic vs. literal arguments when they are at the addressee’s side, in both critical and praise irony conditions.
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.08gio
211
236
26
Chapter
11
01
How defaultness shapes our language production
A usage-based study of discoursal resonance with default interpretations of metaphor and sarcasm
1
A01
Rachel Giora
Giora, Rachel
Rachel
Giora
Tel Aviv University
20
affirmative
20
corpus-based studies
20
default interpretations
20
discourse production
20
literalness
20
metaphor
20
negative
20
nondefault interpretations
20
processing
20
sarcasm
01
The paper focuses on discourse production. It shows that language production unfolds via resonating (Du Bois, 2014) with default interpretations. Default interpretations are defined as automatic responses. However, for an automatic response to be considered a default, it has to be (i) novel; (ii) free of semantic an omaly (Beardsley, 1958) and internal incongruity (Partington, 2011); and (iii) free of contextual information, intonation, discourse markers, etc. Results show that constructions, shown to be interpreted sarcastically or metaphorically when in isolation, were processed faster than nondefault counterparts when in discourse. As a result, corpus-based studies, displaying default interpretations, show that speakers’ discourse is unfolding via utterances’ default rather than nondefault interpretations. This applies here to Hebrew but also to English, German, and Russian.
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.09kor
237
262
26
Chapter
12
01
Producing figurative meanings
The case of idioms
1
A01
Loes Koring
Koring, Loes
Loes
Koring
Macquarie University
20
definiteness marking
20
Dutch
20
figurative expressions
20
idiomaticity
01
This paper explores the hypothesis that definiteness marking can be used as a tool for the speaker to trigger idiomaticity. In an experiment, we asked participants to produce the content of newly created figurative expressions. The results showed that the manipulation of a single parameter, definiteness marking, gave rise to a difference in the type of content participants produced for the novel figurative expressions. In particular, figurative expressions that contained a pragmatically unlicensed definite article gave rise to greater idiomaticity than expressions that contained a (licensed) indefinite article. Violating the felicity conditions on the use of a definite article is therefore one way for the speaker to produce figuration.
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.10kre
263
296
34
Chapter
13
01
The production of verbal irony
How to be an ironist
1
A01
Roger J. Kreuz
Kreuz, Roger J.
Roger J.
Kreuz
University of Memphis
2
A01
Alexander A. Johnson
Johnson, Alexander A.
Alexander A.
Johnson
University of Memphis
20
computer-mediated communication
20
discourse
20
irony
20
pragmatics
20
sentiment analysis
01
Although verbal irony has been a topic of interest for researchers studying language comprehension, the production of irony is also of great interest, since it highlights the situational, pragmatic, and even cultural factors that affect language use. Issues of production and interpretation have, if anything, become even more salient with the rise of email, texting, and social media. Even though such mediums are conversationally impoverished, new conventions and nonliteral markers have evolved to allow verbal irony to both survive and flourish online. This chapter will provide a review and an assessment of the current state of the literature on these topics.
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.p3
217
316
100
Section header
14
01
Section 3. Empirical and analytical studies aimed at specific applications
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.11cil
297
330
34
Chapter
15
01
Generating metaphors in product design
1
A01
Nazli Cila
Cila, Nazli
Nazli
Cila
Delft University of Technology
2
A01
Paul Hekkert
Hekkert, Paul
Paul
Hekkert
Delft University of Technology
20
association
20
mapping
20
metaphor aesthetics
20
metaphor generation
20
metaphor quality
20
metaphoric communication
20
product design
20
product metaphor
01
A product metaphor mediates between the experience process of a user and the generation process of a designer. A user goes through the stages of perceiving that a metaphor has been employed in a product, recognizing its target and source, comprehending why these particular entities are brought together, and appreciating (or not) this association. A designer has a particular intention to attain through the product (i.e., target) and comes up with a meaning to convey accordingly, finds a source that can assign this meaning to the product, and creates a mapping from this source to the product. In this chapter, we will first present a basic framework for metaphoric communication and proceed by elaborating on the designer side of the model. We will address each step through presenting our own research findings and/or analyzing current product metaphors in the market, and transform the framework into a detailed metaphoric communication model. We will end the chapter by discussing the model in a broader context of metaphor generation process and give metaphor producers a summary of considerations on creating more effective and aesthetic metaphors.
10
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JB code
ftl.10.12mac
331
362
32
Chapter
16
01
<i>Rock bottoms, juggling balls</i> and <i>coalprints</i>
Exploring the metaphors L2 speakers of English produce in face-to-face interaction
1
A01
Fiona MacArthur
MacArthur, Fiona
Fiona
MacArthur
Universidad de Extremadura
20
conversation
20
English as a second language
20
English as lingua franca
20
EuroCoAT
20
metaphor
20
production
20
repetition
20
systematicity
20
VOICE
01
In comparison with the interest shown in the difficulties second language (L2) speakers have in understanding English metaphors, very little attention has been paid to examining the metaphors they actually produce, particularly in the oral mode. In this chapter I examine the metaphors used by L2 speakers in face-to-face interaction with native (L1) speakers or with other L2 speakers, using data from three different sources: the Vienna-Oxford Corpus of International English (VOICE), the European Corpus of Academic Talk (EuroCoAT), as well as smaller databases compiled in the course of other research. I consider the following aspects of metaphor production in L2 conversation: its frequency, its general characteristics, its conventionality, and some of the factors that prompt its use in discourse.
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.13nac
363
388
26
Chapter
17
01
Figurative production in a computer-mediated discussion forum
Metaphors about relationship abuse
1
A01
Susan Nacey
Nacey, Susan
Susan
Nacey
Inland Norway University of Applied Science
20
computer-mediated discourse
20
frames
20
metaphorical analogies
20
relationship abuse
20
scenarios
01
When people undergo traumatic events, they frequently turn to metaphor in an attempt to make what might initially seem indescribable into something comprehensible to others, and/or to help themselves reach a clearer understanding of what has happened to them. This investigation explores such metaphorical language produced in computer-mediated discourse by survivors of relationship abuse to communicate about various aspects of their experience, thus shedding light on a traditionally “taboo” subject that many people find difficult to broach. The analysis first explores the ways survivors “frame” their experience through a particular source domain, and then looks at the various source domain “scenarios” that are drawn upon to elaborate particular salient details of the abuse. The chapter thus builds upon established theories about metaphorical frames and scenarios to explore what we may learn about a particular group (i.e. relationship abuse survivors) through analyzing their production of metaphor. In this way, it demonstrates why the theory of metaphor and the field of figurative language production matter in the real world.
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.14tur
389
418
30
Chapter
18
01
The production of time-related metaphors by people who have experienced pregnancy loss
1
A01
Sarah Turner
Turner, Sarah
Sarah
Turner
Coventry University
2
A01
Jeannette Littlemore
Littlemore, Jeannette
Jeannette
Littlemore
University of Birmingham
3
A01
Danielle Fuller
Fuller, Danielle
Danielle
Fuller
University of Alberta
4
A01
Karolina Kuberska
Kuberska, Karolina
Karolina
Kuberska
University of Cambridge
5
A01
Sheelagh McGuinness
McGuinness, Sheelagh
Sheelagh
McGuinness
University of Bristol
20
bereavement
20
emotion
20
grief
20
metaphor
20
pregnancy loss
20
time
01
In this chapter we focus on the ways in which people who have experienced pregnancy loss use metaphor to describe the experience, with a particular focus on time-related metaphor. The data come from an ESRC-funded study that investigates the ways in which people who have experienced bereavement following pregnancy loss communicate their experiences. We use these data to explore the ways in which the bereaved (and those who support them) use time-related metaphors to talk about their experiences and suggest ways in which such an analysis can be used to provide insight into the experiences of the bereaved. We conclude by discussing the implications of our findings for friends, colleagues and relatives.
10
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JB code
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317
532
216
Section header
19
01
Section 4. Other theoretical analysis and cognitive or computational modelling
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.15mcg
419
448
30
Chapter
20
01
Metaphor generation through context sensitive distributional semantics
1
A01
Stephen McGregor
McGregor, Stephen
Stephen
McGregor
action.ai
2
A01
Matthew Purver
Purver, Matthew
Matthew
Purver
Cognitive Science Research Group, School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London & Department of Knowledge Technologies, Institut Jožef Stefan, Ljubljana
3
A01
Geraint Wiggins
Wiggins, Geraint
Geraint
Wiggins
Vrije Universiteit Brussel & Queen Mary University of London
20
context sensitive semantic modelling
20
distributional semantics
20
metaphor generation
20
natural language processing
20
pragmatics
01
In this paper, we outline a preliminary methodology for generating metaphor based on contextual projections of representations built up through a statistical analysis of a large-scale linguistic corpus. These projections involve defining subspaces of co-occurrence statistics in which we show that metaphors can be modelled as mappings between congruent regions of semantic representations. We offer this methodology as an empirical implementation pointing towards a resolution of theoretical stances, at times incompatible, construing metaphor as on the one hand an artefact of underlying cognitive processes and on the other hand a product of the environmentally situated generation of ephemeral conceptual schemes.
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.16pop
449
468
20
Chapter
21
01
Mind the gap
Expressing affect with hyperbole and hyperbolic figures
1
A01
Mihaela Popa-Wyatt
Popa-Wyatt, Mihaela
Mihaela
Popa-Wyatt
Leibniz-Zentrum Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft (ZAS)
20
affect
20
hyperbole
20
hyperbolic figures
20
irony
20
metaphor
20
salience-shift
01
Hyperbole is traditionally understood as exaggeration. I argue instead that the point of hyperbole is <i>emphasis</i>. By overstating that things are <i>greater</i> (<i>lesser</i>) than expected, hoped, or desired, we shift the salience of the target property, thus making it more emphatic. This enables to express surprise or other relevant affect in reaction to how much, or how little, our expectations have been either exceeded or thwarted. This purpose is well suited to hyperbolic expression. This is because hyperbole naturally draws a contrast between how things are and how they were expected to be, exaggerating the gap between them. I conclude by considering the characteristics of hyperbolic figures where hyperbole mixes with other figures of speech.
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.17rui
469
510
42
Chapter
22
01
Figurative language
Relations and constraints
1
A01
Francisco José Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez
Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, Francisco José
Francisco José
Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez
University of La Rioja
20
cognitive operations
20
constraints on figures of speech
20
embodied cognition
20
figurative language
20
figures of speech
20
pragmatic inferencing
01
The present paper discusses two aspects of the production of figures of speech. The first one is their relatedness, which is established on the basis of an analysis of their cognitive configuration in terms of combinations of cognitive operations. Such operations are applied to the creation of basic figures of speech such as metaphor, metonymy, understatement, overstatement, irony, paradox, and oxymoron. Other traditional figurative uses of language are then accounted for with reference to these more basic ones. The second aspect that this paper addresses is the question of constraints on figurative thinking. In this respect, it reviews previous proposals on the topic and extends their application to other cases of figurative language use. The resulting account links figurative language up with the notion of embodied cognition.
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.18vea
511
532
22
Chapter
23
01
Metaphor as sign and as symbol
1
A01
Tony Veale
Veale, Tony
Tony
Veale
University College Dublin
20
deliberate metaphors
20
potential metaphors
20
signs
20
symbols
01
Metaphors come as second nature to users of language because they are so often the norm. We trade in them deftly, to the point of seeming indifference to, and sometimes even ignorance of, their figurative natures. But the opposite is also true, since words that are offered with the plainest of intentions can be granted a metaphorical significance by those who wish to perceive it. In this paper we contribute to the debate about <i>deliberate</i> metaphors by exploring a related concept, the <i>potential</i> metaphor. Any text that supports a non-literal interpretation is a potential metaphor, regardless of its author’s avowed intentions. We build on this distinction to model the mechanical generation of metaphors as an opportunistic process, whereby potential metaphors are converted into deliberate metaphors. We argue that the distinction between potential and deliberate is mirrored in that between signs and symbols, and demonstrate how this understanding leads to a more nuanced basis for generating and interpreting metaphors on a machine.
10
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JB code
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533
542
10
Miscellaneous
24
01
Topic Index
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.aind
543
550
8
Miscellaneous
25
01
Author Index
10
01
JB code
ftl.10.ind
Miscellaneous
26
01
Topic Index
02
JBENJAMINS
John Benjamins Publishing Company
01
John Benjamins Publishing Company
Amsterdam/Philadelphia
NL
04
20201217
2020
John Benjamins B.V.
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WORLD
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9789027208033
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John Benjamins e-Platform
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jbe-platform.com
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745027125
03
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JB
John Benjamins Publishing Company
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JB code
FTL 10 Hb
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9789027208033
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2020040072
BB
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FTL
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2405-6944
Figurative Thought and Language
10
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Producing Figurative Expression
Theoretical, experimental and practical perspectives
01
ftl.10
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https://benjamins.com
02
https://benjamins.com/catalog/ftl.10
1
B01
John Barnden
Barnden, John
John
Barnden
University of Birmingham
2
B01
Andrew Gargett
Gargett, Andrew
Andrew
Gargett
Open University
01
eng
557
viii
549
LAN009030
v.2006
CFG
2
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JB Subject Scheme
LIN.COGN
Cognition and language
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.DISC
Discourse studies
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.PRAG
Pragmatics
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.PSYLIN
Psycholinguistics
06
01
This collection contains a selection of recent work on people’s production of figurative language (metaphoric, ironic, metonymic, hyperbolic, ...) and similarly of figurative expression in visual media and artefact design. The articles illuminate issues such as why and under what circumstances people produce figurative expression and how it is moulded by their aims. By focusing on production, the intention is to help stimulate more academic research on it and redress historically lower levels of published work on generation than on understanding of figurative expression. The contributions stretch across various academic disciplines—mainly psychology, cognitive linguistics and applied linguistics, but with a representation also of philosophy and artificial intelligence—and across different types of endeavour—theoretical investigation and model building, experimental studies, and applications focussed work (for instance, figurative expression in product design and online support groups). There is also a wide-ranging introductory chapter that touches on areas outside the scope of the contributed articles and discusses difficult issues such as a complex interplay of production and understanding.
05
The edited volume “Producing Figurative Expression” presents research into the production of metaphor, irony, hyperbole, and other forms of figurative expressions across discourse domains, disciplines, and potentially also cultures. With this, the book sets the agenda for new lines of investigation in the study of figurative expression production.
Britta C. Brugman, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, in Metaphor and the Social World 12:2 (2022).
05
To conclude, this volume is a truly necessary resource for anyone interested in figurative language, and in particular, its production. Since the research on figurative expressions has been overwhelmingly focused on its comprehension, rather than on its production, this volume fills a substantial gap in the literature by uniting interdisciplinary approaches which use a wide variety of methods and suggest possible methodological obstacles in metaphor production studies. There is no doubt that this book will directly inspire impactful future research on metaphor production.
Ana Werkmann Horvat, University of Osijek, Journal of Pragmatics 184 (2021)
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Miscellaneous
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Preface
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John Barnden
Barnden, John
John
Barnden
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Andrew Gargett
Gargett, Andrew
Andrew
Gargett
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34
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Chapter
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Introduction
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A01
John Barnden
Barnden, John
John
Barnden
University of Birmingham
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Andrew Gargett
Gargett, Andrew
Andrew
Gargett
Open University
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Section header
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Section 1. General empirical studies, with main focus on metaphor
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Producing metaphor (and other forms of non-literal language) in the laboratory
Structural and pragmatic effects as seen from the perspective of an experimental psycholinguist
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A01
Albert N. Katz
Katz, Albert N.
Albert N.
Katz
The University of Western Ontario
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life event generation task
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online discussion task
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passage completion task
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vehicle completion task
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In this chapter I argue for the utility of studying nonliteral language production in the laboratory. Three aspects of nonliteral language production were provided as examples: first, inducing non-literal language in interactive communication (and identifying features of the produced language); second, using production techniques to identify the discourse context in which nonliteral language emerges and, finally, examining how production techniques can inform about the basic cognitive mechanisms that underlie metaphor usage.
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5
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Metaphor and one-off pictures
Touch and vision
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A01
John M. Kennedy
Kennedy, John M.
John M.
Kennedy
University of Toronto
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blind
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children
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edge
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line
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metaphor
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outline
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picture
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surface
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tactile drawings
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All representational media support tropes. This chapter considers pictures and asks how <i>pictorial metaphors</i> can be devised by people with relatively little experience in the medium. The examples considered are raised-line drawings devised by blind children and adults. In some, the shapes of objects are anomalous but apt. In others the use of a line contrasts with its use in outline drawings – for example, <i>atmospheric</i> lines surround a target object. The blind and sighted concur on the meaning of pictorial metaphors. The theory of metaphor in drawings presented here treats perception, outline, realistic shape and departures from realism. Pictures have primary meanings, and metaphoric pictures require secondary meanings.
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Metaphor production and metaphor interpretation
1
A01
Andreas Musolff
Musolff, Andreas
Andreas
Musolff
University of East Anglia
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corpus
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creativity
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discourse history
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interpretation
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metaphor production
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metaphor reception
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nation as body/ person
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questionnaire survey
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variation
01
Metaphor production and interpretation are intricately connected: the former has the latter as its ostensive target; however, interpretation processes can trigger new metaphor formulations which were unforeseen by the original speaker and would have to count as new productions. This paper looks at corpus- and survey-based evidence of innovative interpretative metaphor use that changes the default meanings of established figurative constructions. Specifically, we look at interpretation-induced changes in the meaning of corporeal metaphors, on the basis of a (1) corpus of British political discourse and (2) a questionnaire survey of more than 1000 respondents from 31 linguistic backgrounds in 10 countries. <br />The corpus-based evidence presented in the first part consists of metaphor-production data that show how situational variation in metaphor use can over time create a semantic-pragmatic drift that changes the dominant meaning of a conventional metaphor expression, thus illustrating diachronic variation. The questionnaire survey, which forms the material for the second part reveals four distinct models for <sc>body</sc>-focused readings (i.e. <sc>nation as geobody, as hierarchical functional whole, as part of speaker’s body, as part of larger body</sc>), plus further <sc>person</sc>-focused readings. These data show synchronic variation. <br />By highlighting significant variation, both data sets put in question the standard theory model of ‘automatic’ metaphor processing and extension. Instead, they indicate a strong production element in metaphor interpretation – and of interpretive aspects in metaphor production.
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On the role of perceptual similarity in producing visual metaphors
1
A01
Amitash Ojha
Ojha, Amitash
Amitash
Ojha
Indian Institute of Technology Jammu
2
A01
Bipin Indurkhya
Indurkhya, Bipin
Bipin
Indurkhya
Jagiellonian University
20
conceptual metaphor
20
perceptual similarity
20
production of metaphor
20
visual metaphors
01
We explore here the role of perceptual similarity in producing visual metaphors. In the first part of the study, we characterize visual metaphors and show how perceptual similarity is used in various kinds of visual metaphors appearing in advertisements. In the second part, we present two studies that show that perceptual similarity is intuitively recognized, and shape-based perceptual similarity is preferred for pictorial metaphors. Finally, in the third part, we propose a system to generate visual metaphors based on algorithmic perceptual similarity.
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Section header
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Section 2. General empirical studies – other
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174
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Chapter
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On why people don’t say what they mean
Production of figurative formulaic language
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A01
Herbert L. Colston
Colston, Herbert L.
Herbert L.
Colston
University of Alberta
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comprehension
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ecological validity
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figurative
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formulaic language
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gratitude acknowledgment
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human experimentation
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language understanding
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pragmatic effects
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pragmatics
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production
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psychology
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routine formulas
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The study addresses two problems with recent psycholinguistic research on why people don’t say what they mean, (1) possible underrepresentation in research studies of types of figurative language found in everyday talk, and (2) potential ecological validity problems due to using standard psycholinguistic experimental methodologies and inauthentic language materials. In three experiments, these problems were addressed using authentic productions of a relatively unexplored figurative language type – formulaic language, specifically <i>gratitude acknowledgements</i>, which cover a range of figurativity (e.g., “don’t worry about it”, through, “anytime”), often using hyperbole as part of their functioning – a key focus of the present study. The results demonstrate that speakers use figurative gratitude acknowledgements to achieve the pragmatic effects of politeness and esteem display as well as fondness expression, which are not achieved to the same extents by nonfigurative gratitude acknowledgements. The particular pragmatics of this figurative form, the influence of these pragmatic effects on some theoretical questions, and the broader implications of inclusion of new figurative language forms, as well as authentic language items and methods, in research on figurative language production and pragmatics, are discussed.
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Chapter
10
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How nice does it sound?
An argumentative approach to the affective aspects of irony production
1
A01
Francesca Ervas
Ervas, Francesca
Francesca
Ervas
University of Cagliari
20
argumentation
20
emotions
20
irony
20
sarcasm
01
The chapter presents irony as a form of the <i>reductio ad absurdum</i> argument having a specific emotional charge, which cannot be found either in literal arguments or in other arguments containing figurative language. The claim of the chapter is that irony production depends on the ironist’s ability to convey the emotional charge together with the point she invites the addressee(s) to infer. An empirical study is presented aiming (1) to understand whether and when participants produce (non-sarcastic/sarcastic) ironic vs. literal arguments having a positive vs. negative emotional charge and (2) to check whether and when participants revise their own (non-sarcastic/sarcastic) ironic vs. literal arguments when they are at the addressee’s side, in both critical and praise irony conditions.
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Chapter
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How defaultness shapes our language production
A usage-based study of discoursal resonance with default interpretations of metaphor and sarcasm
1
A01
Rachel Giora
Giora, Rachel
Rachel
Giora
Tel Aviv University
20
affirmative
20
corpus-based studies
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default interpretations
20
discourse production
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literalness
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metaphor
20
negative
20
nondefault interpretations
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processing
20
sarcasm
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The paper focuses on discourse production. It shows that language production unfolds via resonating (Du Bois, 2014) with default interpretations. Default interpretations are defined as automatic responses. However, for an automatic response to be considered a default, it has to be (i) novel; (ii) free of semantic an omaly (Beardsley, 1958) and internal incongruity (Partington, 2011); and (iii) free of contextual information, intonation, discourse markers, etc. Results show that constructions, shown to be interpreted sarcastically or metaphorically when in isolation, were processed faster than nondefault counterparts when in discourse. As a result, corpus-based studies, displaying default interpretations, show that speakers’ discourse is unfolding via utterances’ default rather than nondefault interpretations. This applies here to Hebrew but also to English, German, and Russian.
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Producing figurative meanings
The case of idioms
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A01
Loes Koring
Koring, Loes
Loes
Koring
Macquarie University
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definiteness marking
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Dutch
20
figurative expressions
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idiomaticity
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This paper explores the hypothesis that definiteness marking can be used as a tool for the speaker to trigger idiomaticity. In an experiment, we asked participants to produce the content of newly created figurative expressions. The results showed that the manipulation of a single parameter, definiteness marking, gave rise to a difference in the type of content participants produced for the novel figurative expressions. In particular, figurative expressions that contained a pragmatically unlicensed definite article gave rise to greater idiomaticity than expressions that contained a (licensed) indefinite article. Violating the felicity conditions on the use of a definite article is therefore one way for the speaker to produce figuration.
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Chapter
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The production of verbal irony
How to be an ironist
1
A01
Roger J. Kreuz
Kreuz, Roger J.
Roger J.
Kreuz
University of Memphis
2
A01
Alexander A. Johnson
Johnson, Alexander A.
Alexander A.
Johnson
University of Memphis
20
computer-mediated communication
20
discourse
20
irony
20
pragmatics
20
sentiment analysis
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Although verbal irony has been a topic of interest for researchers studying language comprehension, the production of irony is also of great interest, since it highlights the situational, pragmatic, and even cultural factors that affect language use. Issues of production and interpretation have, if anything, become even more salient with the rise of email, texting, and social media. Even though such mediums are conversationally impoverished, new conventions and nonliteral markers have evolved to allow verbal irony to both survive and flourish online. This chapter will provide a review and an assessment of the current state of the literature on these topics.
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Section header
14
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Section 3. Empirical and analytical studies aimed at specific applications
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Chapter
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Generating metaphors in product design
1
A01
Nazli Cila
Cila, Nazli
Nazli
Cila
Delft University of Technology
2
A01
Paul Hekkert
Hekkert, Paul
Paul
Hekkert
Delft University of Technology
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association
20
mapping
20
metaphor aesthetics
20
metaphor generation
20
metaphor quality
20
metaphoric communication
20
product design
20
product metaphor
01
A product metaphor mediates between the experience process of a user and the generation process of a designer. A user goes through the stages of perceiving that a metaphor has been employed in a product, recognizing its target and source, comprehending why these particular entities are brought together, and appreciating (or not) this association. A designer has a particular intention to attain through the product (i.e., target) and comes up with a meaning to convey accordingly, finds a source that can assign this meaning to the product, and creates a mapping from this source to the product. In this chapter, we will first present a basic framework for metaphoric communication and proceed by elaborating on the designer side of the model. We will address each step through presenting our own research findings and/or analyzing current product metaphors in the market, and transform the framework into a detailed metaphoric communication model. We will end the chapter by discussing the model in a broader context of metaphor generation process and give metaphor producers a summary of considerations on creating more effective and aesthetic metaphors.
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Chapter
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<i>Rock bottoms, juggling balls</i> and <i>coalprints</i>
Exploring the metaphors L2 speakers of English produce in face-to-face interaction
1
A01
Fiona MacArthur
MacArthur, Fiona
Fiona
MacArthur
Universidad de Extremadura
20
conversation
20
English as a second language
20
English as lingua franca
20
EuroCoAT
20
metaphor
20
production
20
repetition
20
systematicity
20
VOICE
01
In comparison with the interest shown in the difficulties second language (L2) speakers have in understanding English metaphors, very little attention has been paid to examining the metaphors they actually produce, particularly in the oral mode. In this chapter I examine the metaphors used by L2 speakers in face-to-face interaction with native (L1) speakers or with other L2 speakers, using data from three different sources: the Vienna-Oxford Corpus of International English (VOICE), the European Corpus of Academic Talk (EuroCoAT), as well as smaller databases compiled in the course of other research. I consider the following aspects of metaphor production in L2 conversation: its frequency, its general characteristics, its conventionality, and some of the factors that prompt its use in discourse.
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Chapter
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Figurative production in a computer-mediated discussion forum
Metaphors about relationship abuse
1
A01
Susan Nacey
Nacey, Susan
Susan
Nacey
Inland Norway University of Applied Science
20
computer-mediated discourse
20
frames
20
metaphorical analogies
20
relationship abuse
20
scenarios
01
When people undergo traumatic events, they frequently turn to metaphor in an attempt to make what might initially seem indescribable into something comprehensible to others, and/or to help themselves reach a clearer understanding of what has happened to them. This investigation explores such metaphorical language produced in computer-mediated discourse by survivors of relationship abuse to communicate about various aspects of their experience, thus shedding light on a traditionally “taboo” subject that many people find difficult to broach. The analysis first explores the ways survivors “frame” their experience through a particular source domain, and then looks at the various source domain “scenarios” that are drawn upon to elaborate particular salient details of the abuse. The chapter thus builds upon established theories about metaphorical frames and scenarios to explore what we may learn about a particular group (i.e. relationship abuse survivors) through analyzing their production of metaphor. In this way, it demonstrates why the theory of metaphor and the field of figurative language production matter in the real world.
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Chapter
18
01
The production of time-related metaphors by people who have experienced pregnancy loss
1
A01
Sarah Turner
Turner, Sarah
Sarah
Turner
Coventry University
2
A01
Jeannette Littlemore
Littlemore, Jeannette
Jeannette
Littlemore
University of Birmingham
3
A01
Danielle Fuller
Fuller, Danielle
Danielle
Fuller
University of Alberta
4
A01
Karolina Kuberska
Kuberska, Karolina
Karolina
Kuberska
University of Cambridge
5
A01
Sheelagh McGuinness
McGuinness, Sheelagh
Sheelagh
McGuinness
University of Bristol
20
bereavement
20
emotion
20
grief
20
metaphor
20
pregnancy loss
20
time
01
In this chapter we focus on the ways in which people who have experienced pregnancy loss use metaphor to describe the experience, with a particular focus on time-related metaphor. The data come from an ESRC-funded study that investigates the ways in which people who have experienced bereavement following pregnancy loss communicate their experiences. We use these data to explore the ways in which the bereaved (and those who support them) use time-related metaphors to talk about their experiences and suggest ways in which such an analysis can be used to provide insight into the experiences of the bereaved. We conclude by discussing the implications of our findings for friends, colleagues and relatives.
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Section header
19
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Section 4. Other theoretical analysis and cognitive or computational modelling
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Chapter
20
01
Metaphor generation through context sensitive distributional semantics
1
A01
Stephen McGregor
McGregor, Stephen
Stephen
McGregor
action.ai
2
A01
Matthew Purver
Purver, Matthew
Matthew
Purver
Cognitive Science Research Group, School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London & Department of Knowledge Technologies, Institut Jožef Stefan, Ljubljana
3
A01
Geraint Wiggins
Wiggins, Geraint
Geraint
Wiggins
Vrije Universiteit Brussel & Queen Mary University of London
20
context sensitive semantic modelling
20
distributional semantics
20
metaphor generation
20
natural language processing
20
pragmatics
01
In this paper, we outline a preliminary methodology for generating metaphor based on contextual projections of representations built up through a statistical analysis of a large-scale linguistic corpus. These projections involve defining subspaces of co-occurrence statistics in which we show that metaphors can be modelled as mappings between congruent regions of semantic representations. We offer this methodology as an empirical implementation pointing towards a resolution of theoretical stances, at times incompatible, construing metaphor as on the one hand an artefact of underlying cognitive processes and on the other hand a product of the environmentally situated generation of ephemeral conceptual schemes.
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468
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Chapter
21
01
Mind the gap
Expressing affect with hyperbole and hyperbolic figures
1
A01
Mihaela Popa-Wyatt
Popa-Wyatt, Mihaela
Mihaela
Popa-Wyatt
Leibniz-Zentrum Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft (ZAS)
20
affect
20
hyperbole
20
hyperbolic figures
20
irony
20
metaphor
20
salience-shift
01
Hyperbole is traditionally understood as exaggeration. I argue instead that the point of hyperbole is <i>emphasis</i>. By overstating that things are <i>greater</i> (<i>lesser</i>) than expected, hoped, or desired, we shift the salience of the target property, thus making it more emphatic. This enables to express surprise or other relevant affect in reaction to how much, or how little, our expectations have been either exceeded or thwarted. This purpose is well suited to hyperbolic expression. This is because hyperbole naturally draws a contrast between how things are and how they were expected to be, exaggerating the gap between them. I conclude by considering the characteristics of hyperbolic figures where hyperbole mixes with other figures of speech.
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510
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Chapter
22
01
Figurative language
Relations and constraints
1
A01
Francisco José Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez
Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, Francisco José
Francisco José
Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez
University of La Rioja
20
cognitive operations
20
constraints on figures of speech
20
embodied cognition
20
figurative language
20
figures of speech
20
pragmatic inferencing
01
The present paper discusses two aspects of the production of figures of speech. The first one is their relatedness, which is established on the basis of an analysis of their cognitive configuration in terms of combinations of cognitive operations. Such operations are applied to the creation of basic figures of speech such as metaphor, metonymy, understatement, overstatement, irony, paradox, and oxymoron. Other traditional figurative uses of language are then accounted for with reference to these more basic ones. The second aspect that this paper addresses is the question of constraints on figurative thinking. In this respect, it reviews previous proposals on the topic and extends their application to other cases of figurative language use. The resulting account links figurative language up with the notion of embodied cognition.
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511
532
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Chapter
23
01
Metaphor as sign and as symbol
1
A01
Tony Veale
Veale, Tony
Tony
Veale
University College Dublin
20
deliberate metaphors
20
potential metaphors
20
signs
20
symbols
01
Metaphors come as second nature to users of language because they are so often the norm. We trade in them deftly, to the point of seeming indifference to, and sometimes even ignorance of, their figurative natures. But the opposite is also true, since words that are offered with the plainest of intentions can be granted a metaphorical significance by those who wish to perceive it. In this paper we contribute to the debate about <i>deliberate</i> metaphors by exploring a related concept, the <i>potential</i> metaphor. Any text that supports a non-literal interpretation is a potential metaphor, regardless of its author’s avowed intentions. We build on this distinction to model the mechanical generation of metaphors as an opportunistic process, whereby potential metaphors are converted into deliberate metaphors. We argue that the distinction between potential and deliberate is mirrored in that between signs and symbols, and demonstrate how this understanding leads to a more nuanced basis for generating and interpreting metaphors on a machine.
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Miscellaneous
24
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Topic Index
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550
8
Miscellaneous
25
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Author Index
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Miscellaneous
26
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Topic Index
02
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