88027126 03 01 01 JB John Benjamins Publishing Company 01 JB code FTL 10 Eb 15 9789027260406 06 10.1075/ftl.10 13 2020040073 DG 002 02 01 FTL 02 2405-6944 Figurative Thought and Language 10 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Producing Figurative Expression</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Theoretical, experimental and practical perspectives</Subtitle> 01 ftl.10 01 https://benjamins.com 02 https://benjamins.com/catalog/ftl.10 1 B01 John Barnden Barnden, John John Barnden University of Birmingham 2 B01 Andrew Gargett Gargett, Andrew Andrew Gargett Open University 01 eng 557 viii 549 LAN009030 v.2006 CFG 2 24 JB Subject Scheme LIN.COGN Cognition and language 24 JB Subject Scheme LIN.DISC Discourse studies 24 JB Subject Scheme LIN.PRAG Pragmatics 24 JB Subject Scheme LIN.PSYLIN Psycholinguistics 06 01 This collection contains a selection of recent work on people’s production of figurative language (metaphoric, ironic, metonymic, hyperbolic, ...) and similarly of figurative expression in visual media and artefact design. The articles illuminate issues such as why and under what circumstances people produce figurative expression and how it is moulded by their aims. By focusing on production, the intention is to help stimulate more academic research on it and redress historically lower levels of published work on generation than on understanding of figurative expression. The contributions stretch across various academic disciplines—mainly psychology, cognitive linguistics and applied linguistics, but with a representation also of philosophy and artificial intelligence—and across different types of endeavour—theoretical investigation and model building, experimental studies, and applications focussed work (for instance, figurative expression in product design and online support groups). There is also a wide-ranging introductory chapter that touches on areas outside the scope of the contributed articles and discusses difficult issues such as a complex interplay of production and understanding. 05 The edited volume “Producing Figurative Expression” presents research into the production of metaphor, irony, hyperbole, and other forms of figurative expressions across discourse domains, disciplines, and potentially also cultures. With this, the book sets the agenda for new lines of investigation in the study of figurative expression production. Britta C. Brugman, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, in Metaphor and the Social World 12:2 (2022). 05 To conclude, this volume is a truly necessary resource for anyone interested in figurative language, and in particular, its production. Since the research on figurative expressions has been overwhelmingly focused on its comprehension, rather than on its production, this volume fills a substantial gap in the literature by uniting interdisciplinary approaches which use a wide variety of methods and suggest possible methodological obstacles in metaphor production studies. There is no doubt that this book will directly inspire impactful future research on metaphor production. Ana Werkmann Horvat, University of Osijek, Journal of Pragmatics 184 (2021) 04 09 01 https://benjamins.com/covers/475/ftl.10.png 04 03 01 https://benjamins.com/covers/475_jpg/9789027208033.jpg 04 03 01 https://benjamins.com/covers/475_tif/9789027208033.tif 06 09 01 https://benjamins.com/covers/1200_front/ftl.10.hb.png 07 09 01 https://benjamins.com/covers/125/ftl.10.png 25 09 01 https://benjamins.com/covers/1200_back/ftl.10.hb.png 27 09 01 https://benjamins.com/covers/3d_web/ftl.10.hb.png 10 01 JB code ftl.10.pre vii viii 2 Miscellaneous 1 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Preface</TitleText> 1 A01 John Barnden Barnden, John John Barnden 2 A01 Andrew Gargett Gargett, Andrew Andrew Gargett 10 01 JB code ftl.10.01bar 1 34 34 Chapter 2 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Introduction</TitleText> 1 A01 John Barnden Barnden, John John Barnden University of Birmingham 2 A01 Andrew Gargett Gargett, Andrew Andrew Gargett Open University 10 01 JB code ftl.10.p1 35 106 72 Section header 3 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Section 1. General empirical studies, with main focus on metaphor</TitleText> 10 01 JB code ftl.10.02kat 35 54 20 Chapter 4 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Producing metaphor (and other forms of non-literal language) in the laboratory</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Structural and pragmatic effects as seen from the perspective of an experimental psycholinguist</Subtitle> 1 A01 Albert N. Katz Katz, Albert N. Albert N. Katz The University of Western Ontario 20 life event generation task 20 online discussion task 20 passage completion task 20 vehicle completion task 01 In this chapter I argue for the utility of studying nonliteral language production in the laboratory. Three aspects of nonliteral language production were provided as examples: first, inducing non-literal language in interactive communication (and identifying features of the produced language); second, using production techniques to identify the discourse context in which nonliteral language emerges and, finally, examining how production techniques can inform about the basic cognitive mechanisms that underlie metaphor usage. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.03ken 55 84 30 Chapter 5 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Metaphor and one-off pictures</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Touch and vision</Subtitle> 1 A01 John M. Kennedy Kennedy, John M. John M. Kennedy University of Toronto 20 blind 20 children 20 edge 20 line 20 metaphor 20 outline 20 picture 20 surface 20 tactile drawings 01 All representational media support tropes. This chapter considers pictures and asks how <i>pictorial metaphors</i> can be devised by people with relatively little experience in the medium. The examples considered are raised-line drawings devised by blind children and adults. In some, the shapes of objects are anomalous but apt. In others the use of a line contrasts with its use in outline drawings – for example, <i>atmospheric</i> lines surround a target object. The blind and sighted concur on the meaning of pictorial metaphors. The theory of metaphor in drawings presented here treats perception, outline, realistic shape and departures from realism. Pictures have primary meanings, and metaphoric pictures require secondary meanings. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.04mus 85 104 20 Chapter 6 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Metaphor production and metaphor interpretation</TitleText> 1 A01 Andreas Musolff Musolff, Andreas Andreas Musolff University of East Anglia 20 corpus 20 creativity 20 discourse history 20 interpretation 20 metaphor production 20 metaphor reception 20 nation as body/ person 20 questionnaire survey 20 variation 01 Metaphor production and interpretation are intricately connected: the former has the latter as its ostensive target; however, interpretation processes can trigger new metaphor formulations which were unforeseen by the original speaker and would have to count as new productions. This paper looks at corpus- and survey-based evidence of innovative interpretative metaphor use that changes the default meanings of established figurative constructions. Specifically, we look at interpretation-induced changes in the meaning of corporeal metaphors, on the basis of a (1) corpus of British political discourse and (2) a questionnaire survey of more than 1000 respondents from 31 linguistic backgrounds in 10 countries. <br />The corpus-based evidence presented in the first part consists of metaphor-production data that show how situational variation in metaphor use can over time create a semantic-pragmatic drift that changes the dominant meaning of a conventional metaphor expression, thus illustrating diachronic variation. The questionnaire survey, which forms the material for the second part reveals four distinct models for <sc>body</sc>-focused readings (i.e. <sc>nation as geobody, as hierarchical functional whole, as part of speaker’s body, as part of larger body</sc>), plus further <sc>person</sc>-focused readings. These data show synchronic variation. <br />By highlighting significant variation, both data sets put in question the standard theory model of ‘automatic’ metaphor processing and extension. Instead, they indicate a strong production element in metaphor interpretation – and of interpretive aspects in metaphor production. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.05ojh 105 126 22 Chapter 7 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> On the role of perceptual similarity in producing visual metaphors</TitleText> 1 A01 Amitash Ojha Ojha, Amitash Amitash Ojha Indian Institute of Technology Jammu 2 A01 Bipin Indurkhya Indurkhya, Bipin Bipin Indurkhya Jagiellonian University 20 conceptual metaphor 20 perceptual similarity 20 production of metaphor 20 visual metaphors 01 We explore here the role of perceptual similarity in producing visual metaphors. In the first part of the study, we characterize visual metaphors and show how perceptual similarity is used in various kinds of visual metaphors appearing in advertisements. In the second part, we present two studies that show that perceptual similarity is intuitively recognized, and shape-based perceptual similarity is preferred for pictorial metaphors. Finally, in the third part, we propose a system to generate visual metaphors based on algorithmic perceptual similarity. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.p2 107 216 110 Section header 8 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Section 2. General empirical studies – other</TitleText> 10 01 JB code ftl.10.06col 127 174 48 Chapter 9 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> On why people don’t say what they mean</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Production of figurative formulaic language</Subtitle> 1 A01 Herbert L. Colston Colston, Herbert L. Herbert L. Colston University of Alberta 20 comprehension 20 ecological validity 20 figurative 20 formulaic language 20 gratitude acknowledgment 20 human experimentation 20 language understanding 20 pragmatic effects 20 pragmatics 20 production 20 psychology 20 routine formulas 01 The study addresses two problems with recent psycholinguistic research on why people don’t say what they mean, (1) possible underrepresentation in research studies of types of figurative language found in everyday talk, and (2) potential ecological validity problems due to using standard psycholinguistic experimental methodologies and inauthentic language materials. In three experiments, these problems were addressed using authentic productions of a relatively unexplored figurative language type – formulaic language, specifically <i>gratitude acknowledgements</i>, which cover a range of figurativity (e.g., “don’t worry about it”, through, “anytime”), often using hyperbole as part of their functioning – a key focus of the present study. The results demonstrate that speakers use figurative gratitude acknowledgements to achieve the pragmatic effects of politeness and esteem display as well as fondness expression, which are not achieved to the same extents by nonfigurative gratitude acknowledgements. The particular pragmatics of this figurative form, the influence of these pragmatic effects on some theoretical questions, and the broader implications of inclusion of new figurative language forms, as well as authentic language items and methods, in research on figurative language production and pragmatics, are discussed. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.07erv 175 210 36 Chapter 10 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> How nice does it sound?</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">An argumentative approach to the affective aspects of irony production</Subtitle> 1 A01 Francesca Ervas Ervas, Francesca Francesca Ervas University of Cagliari 20 argumentation 20 emotions 20 irony 20 sarcasm 01 The chapter presents irony as a form of the <i>reductio ad absurdum</i> argument having a specific emotional charge, which cannot be found either in literal arguments or in other arguments containing figurative language. The claim of the chapter is that irony production depends on the ironist’s ability to convey the emotional charge together with the point she invites the addressee(s) to infer. An empirical study is presented aiming (1) to understand whether and when participants produce (non-sarcastic/sarcastic) ironic vs. literal arguments having a positive vs. negative emotional charge and (2) to check whether and when participants revise their own (non-sarcastic/sarcastic) ironic vs. literal arguments when they are at the addressee’s side, in both critical and praise irony conditions. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.08gio 211 236 26 Chapter 11 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> How defaultness shapes our language production</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">A usage-based study of discoursal resonance with default interpretations of metaphor and sarcasm</Subtitle> 1 A01 Rachel Giora Giora, Rachel Rachel Giora Tel Aviv University 20 affirmative 20 corpus-based studies 20 default interpretations 20 discourse production 20 literalness 20 metaphor 20 negative 20 nondefault interpretations 20 processing 20 sarcasm 01 The paper focuses on discourse production. It shows that language production unfolds via resonating (Du Bois, 2014) with default interpretations. Default interpretations are defined as automatic responses. However, for an automatic response to be considered a default, it has to be (i) novel; (ii) free of semantic an omaly (Beardsley, 1958) and internal incongruity (Partington, 2011); and (iii) free of contextual information, intonation, discourse markers, etc. Results show that constructions, shown to be interpreted sarcastically or metaphorically when in isolation, were processed faster than nondefault counterparts when in discourse. As a result, corpus-based studies, displaying default interpretations, show that speakers’ discourse is unfolding via utterances’ default rather than nondefault interpretations. This applies here to Hebrew but also to English, German, and Russian. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.09kor 237 262 26 Chapter 12 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Producing figurative meanings</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">The case of idioms</Subtitle> 1 A01 Loes Koring Koring, Loes Loes Koring Macquarie University 20 definiteness marking 20 Dutch 20 figurative expressions 20 idiomaticity 01 This paper explores the hypothesis that definiteness marking can be used as a tool for the speaker to trigger idiomaticity. In an experiment, we asked participants to produce the content of newly created figurative expressions. The results showed that the manipulation of a single parameter, definiteness marking, gave rise to a difference in the type of content participants produced for the novel figurative expressions. In particular, figurative expressions that contained a pragmatically unlicensed definite article gave rise to greater idiomaticity than expressions that contained a (licensed) indefinite article. Violating the felicity conditions on the use of a definite article is therefore one way for the speaker to produce figuration. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.10kre 263 296 34 Chapter 13 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> The production of verbal irony</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">How to be an ironist</Subtitle> 1 A01 Roger J. Kreuz Kreuz, Roger J. Roger J. Kreuz University of Memphis 2 A01 Alexander A. Johnson Johnson, Alexander A. Alexander A. Johnson University of Memphis 20 computer-mediated communication 20 discourse 20 irony 20 pragmatics 20 sentiment analysis 01 Although verbal irony has been a topic of interest for researchers studying language comprehension, the production of irony is also of great interest, since it highlights the situational, pragmatic, and even cultural factors that affect language use. Issues of production and interpretation have, if anything, become even more salient with the rise of email, texting, and social media. Even though such mediums are conversationally impoverished, new conventions and nonliteral markers have evolved to allow verbal irony to both survive and flourish online. This chapter will provide a review and an assessment of the current state of the literature on these topics. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.p3 217 316 100 Section header 14 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Section 3. Empirical and analytical studies aimed at specific applications</TitleText> 10 01 JB code ftl.10.11cil 297 330 34 Chapter 15 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Generating metaphors in product design</TitleText> 1 A01 Nazli Cila Cila, Nazli Nazli Cila Delft University of Technology 2 A01 Paul Hekkert Hekkert, Paul Paul Hekkert Delft University of Technology 20 association 20 mapping 20 metaphor aesthetics 20 metaphor generation 20 metaphor quality 20 metaphoric communication 20 product design 20 product metaphor 01 A product metaphor mediates between the experience process of a user and the generation process of a designer. A user goes through the stages of perceiving that a metaphor has been employed in a product, recognizing its target and source, comprehending why these particular entities are brought together, and appreciating (or not) this association. A designer has a particular intention to attain through the product (i.e., target) and comes up with a meaning to convey accordingly, finds a source that can assign this meaning to the product, and creates a mapping from this source to the product. In this chapter, we will first present a basic framework for metaphoric communication and proceed by elaborating on the designer side of the model. We will address each step through presenting our own research findings and/or analyzing current product metaphors in the market, and transform the framework into a detailed metaphoric communication model. We will end the chapter by discussing the model in a broader context of metaphor generation process and give metaphor producers a summary of considerations on creating more effective and aesthetic metaphors. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.12mac 331 362 32 Chapter 16 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> <i>Rock bottoms, juggling balls</i> and <i>coalprints</i></TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Exploring the metaphors L2 speakers of English produce in face-to-face interaction</Subtitle> 1 A01 Fiona MacArthur MacArthur, Fiona Fiona MacArthur Universidad de Extremadura 20 conversation 20 English as a second language 20 English as lingua franca 20 EuroCoAT 20 metaphor 20 production 20 repetition 20 systematicity 20 VOICE 01 In comparison with the interest shown in the difficulties second language (L2) speakers have in understanding English metaphors, very little attention has been paid to examining the metaphors they actually produce, particularly in the oral mode. In this chapter I examine the metaphors used by L2 speakers in face-to-face interaction with native (L1) speakers or with other L2 speakers, using data from three different sources: the Vienna-Oxford Corpus of International English (VOICE), the European Corpus of Academic Talk (EuroCoAT), as well as smaller databases compiled in the course of other research. I consider the following aspects of metaphor production in L2 conversation: its frequency, its general characteristics, its conventionality, and some of the factors that prompt its use in discourse. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.13nac 363 388 26 Chapter 17 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Figurative production in a computer-mediated discussion forum</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Metaphors about relationship abuse</Subtitle> 1 A01 Susan Nacey Nacey, Susan Susan Nacey Inland Norway University of Applied Science 20 computer-mediated discourse 20 frames 20 metaphorical analogies 20 relationship abuse 20 scenarios 01 When people undergo traumatic events, they frequently turn to metaphor in an attempt to make what might initially seem indescribable into something comprehensible to others, and/or to help themselves reach a clearer understanding of what has happened to them. This investigation explores such metaphorical language produced in computer-mediated discourse by survivors of relationship abuse to communicate about various aspects of their experience, thus shedding light on a traditionally “taboo” subject that many people find difficult to broach. The analysis first explores the ways survivors “frame” their experience through a particular source domain, and then looks at the various source domain “scenarios” that are drawn upon to elaborate particular salient details of the abuse. The chapter thus builds upon established theories about metaphorical frames and scenarios to explore what we may learn about a particular group (i.e. relationship abuse survivors) through analyzing their production of metaphor. In this way, it demonstrates why the theory of metaphor and the field of figurative language production matter in the real world. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.14tur 389 418 30 Chapter 18 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> The production of time-related metaphors by people who have experienced pregnancy loss</TitleText> 1 A01 Sarah Turner Turner, Sarah Sarah Turner Coventry University 2 A01 Jeannette Littlemore Littlemore, Jeannette Jeannette Littlemore University of Birmingham 3 A01 Danielle Fuller Fuller, Danielle Danielle Fuller University of Alberta 4 A01 Karolina Kuberska Kuberska, Karolina Karolina Kuberska University of Cambridge 5 A01 Sheelagh McGuinness McGuinness, Sheelagh Sheelagh McGuinness University of Bristol 20 bereavement 20 emotion 20 grief 20 metaphor 20 pregnancy loss 20 time 01 In this chapter we focus on the ways in which people who have experienced pregnancy loss use metaphor to describe the experience, with a particular focus on time-related metaphor. The data come from an ESRC-funded study that investigates the ways in which people who have experienced bereavement following pregnancy loss communicate their experiences. We use these data to explore the ways in which the bereaved (and those who support them) use time-related metaphors to talk about their experiences and suggest ways in which such an analysis can be used to provide insight into the experiences of the bereaved. We conclude by discussing the implications of our findings for friends, colleagues and relatives. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.p4 317 532 216 Section header 19 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Section 4. Other theoretical analysis and cognitive or computational modelling</TitleText> 10 01 JB code ftl.10.15mcg 419 448 30 Chapter 20 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Metaphor generation through context sensitive distributional semantics</TitleText> 1 A01 Stephen McGregor McGregor, Stephen Stephen McGregor action.ai 2 A01 Matthew Purver Purver, Matthew Matthew Purver Cognitive Science Research Group, School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London & Department of Knowledge Technologies, Institut Jožef Stefan, Ljubljana 3 A01 Geraint Wiggins Wiggins, Geraint Geraint Wiggins Vrije Universiteit Brussel & Queen Mary University of London 20 context sensitive semantic modelling 20 distributional semantics 20 metaphor generation 20 natural language processing 20 pragmatics 01 In this paper, we outline a preliminary methodology for generating metaphor based on contextual projections of representations built up through a statistical analysis of a large-scale linguistic corpus. These projections involve defining subspaces of co-occurrence statistics in which we show that metaphors can be modelled as mappings between congruent regions of semantic representations. We offer this methodology as an empirical implementation pointing towards a resolution of theoretical stances, at times incompatible, construing metaphor as on the one hand an artefact of underlying cognitive processes and on the other hand a product of the environmentally situated generation of ephemeral conceptual schemes. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.16pop 449 468 20 Chapter 21 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Mind the gap</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Expressing affect with hyperbole and hyperbolic figures</Subtitle> 1 A01 Mihaela Popa-Wyatt Popa-Wyatt, Mihaela Mihaela Popa-Wyatt Leibniz-Zentrum Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft (ZAS) 20 affect 20 hyperbole 20 hyperbolic figures 20 irony 20 metaphor 20 salience-shift 01 Hyperbole is traditionally understood as exaggeration. I argue instead that the point of hyperbole is <i>emphasis</i>. By overstating that things are <i>greater</i> (<i>lesser</i>) than expected, hoped, or desired, we shift the salience of the target property, thus making it more emphatic. This enables to express surprise or other relevant affect in reaction to how much, or how little, our expectations have been either exceeded or thwarted. This purpose is well suited to hyperbolic expression. This is because hyperbole naturally draws a contrast between how things are and how they were expected to be, exaggerating the gap between them. I conclude by considering the characteristics of hyperbolic figures where hyperbole mixes with other figures of speech. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.17rui 469 510 42 Chapter 22 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Figurative language</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Relations and constraints</Subtitle> 1 A01 Francisco José Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, Francisco José Francisco José Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez University of La Rioja 20 cognitive operations 20 constraints on figures of speech 20 embodied cognition 20 figurative language 20 figures of speech 20 pragmatic inferencing 01 The present paper discusses two aspects of the production of figures of speech. The first one is their relatedness, which is established on the basis of an analysis of their cognitive configuration in terms of combinations of cognitive operations. Such operations are applied to the creation of basic figures of speech such as metaphor, metonymy, understatement, overstatement, irony, paradox, and oxymoron. Other traditional figurative uses of language are then accounted for with reference to these more basic ones. The second aspect that this paper addresses is the question of constraints on figurative thinking. In this respect, it reviews previous proposals on the topic and extends their application to other cases of figurative language use. The resulting account links figurative language up with the notion of embodied cognition. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.18vea 511 532 22 Chapter 23 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Metaphor as sign and as symbol</TitleText> 1 A01 Tony Veale Veale, Tony Tony Veale University College Dublin 20 deliberate metaphors 20 potential metaphors 20 signs 20 symbols 01 Metaphors come as second nature to users of language because they are so often the norm. We trade in them deftly, to the point of seeming indifference to, and sometimes even ignorance of, their figurative natures. But the opposite is also true, since words that are offered with the plainest of intentions can be granted a metaphorical significance by those who wish to perceive it. In this paper we contribute to the debate about <i>deliberate</i> metaphors by exploring a related concept, the <i>potential</i> metaphor. Any text that supports a non-literal interpretation is a potential metaphor, regardless of its author’s avowed intentions. We build on this distinction to model the mechanical generation of metaphors as an opportunistic process, whereby potential metaphors are converted into deliberate metaphors. We argue that the distinction between potential and deliberate is mirrored in that between signs and symbols, and demonstrate how this understanding leads to a more nuanced basis for generating and interpreting metaphors on a machine. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.tind 533 542 10 Miscellaneous 24 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Topic Index</TitleText> 10 01 JB code ftl.10.aind 543 550 8 Miscellaneous 25 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Author Index</TitleText> 10 01 JB code ftl.10.ind Miscellaneous 26 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Topic Index</TitleText> 02 JBENJAMINS John Benjamins Publishing Company 01 John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam/Philadelphia NL 04 20201217 2020 John Benjamins B.V. 02 WORLD 13 15 9789027208033 01 JB 3 John Benjamins e-Platform 03 jbe-platform.com 09 WORLD 21 01 00 99.00 EUR R 01 00 83.00 GBP Z 01 gen 00 149.00 USD S 745027125 03 01 01 JB John Benjamins Publishing Company 01 JB code FTL 10 Hb 15 9789027208033 13 2020040072 BB 01 FTL 02 2405-6944 Figurative Thought and Language 10 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Producing Figurative Expression</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Theoretical, experimental and practical perspectives</Subtitle> 01 ftl.10 01 https://benjamins.com 02 https://benjamins.com/catalog/ftl.10 1 B01 John Barnden Barnden, John John Barnden University of Birmingham 2 B01 Andrew Gargett Gargett, Andrew Andrew Gargett Open University 01 eng 557 viii 549 LAN009030 v.2006 CFG 2 24 JB Subject Scheme LIN.COGN Cognition and language 24 JB Subject Scheme LIN.DISC Discourse studies 24 JB Subject Scheme LIN.PRAG Pragmatics 24 JB Subject Scheme LIN.PSYLIN Psycholinguistics 06 01 This collection contains a selection of recent work on people’s production of figurative language (metaphoric, ironic, metonymic, hyperbolic, ...) and similarly of figurative expression in visual media and artefact design. The articles illuminate issues such as why and under what circumstances people produce figurative expression and how it is moulded by their aims. By focusing on production, the intention is to help stimulate more academic research on it and redress historically lower levels of published work on generation than on understanding of figurative expression. The contributions stretch across various academic disciplines—mainly psychology, cognitive linguistics and applied linguistics, but with a representation also of philosophy and artificial intelligence—and across different types of endeavour—theoretical investigation and model building, experimental studies, and applications focussed work (for instance, figurative expression in product design and online support groups). There is also a wide-ranging introductory chapter that touches on areas outside the scope of the contributed articles and discusses difficult issues such as a complex interplay of production and understanding. 05 The edited volume “Producing Figurative Expression” presents research into the production of metaphor, irony, hyperbole, and other forms of figurative expressions across discourse domains, disciplines, and potentially also cultures. With this, the book sets the agenda for new lines of investigation in the study of figurative expression production. Britta C. Brugman, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, in Metaphor and the Social World 12:2 (2022). 05 To conclude, this volume is a truly necessary resource for anyone interested in figurative language, and in particular, its production. Since the research on figurative expressions has been overwhelmingly focused on its comprehension, rather than on its production, this volume fills a substantial gap in the literature by uniting interdisciplinary approaches which use a wide variety of methods and suggest possible methodological obstacles in metaphor production studies. There is no doubt that this book will directly inspire impactful future research on metaphor production. Ana Werkmann Horvat, University of Osijek, Journal of Pragmatics 184 (2021) 04 09 01 https://benjamins.com/covers/475/ftl.10.png 04 03 01 https://benjamins.com/covers/475_jpg/9789027208033.jpg 04 03 01 https://benjamins.com/covers/475_tif/9789027208033.tif 06 09 01 https://benjamins.com/covers/1200_front/ftl.10.hb.png 07 09 01 https://benjamins.com/covers/125/ftl.10.png 25 09 01 https://benjamins.com/covers/1200_back/ftl.10.hb.png 27 09 01 https://benjamins.com/covers/3d_web/ftl.10.hb.png 10 01 JB code ftl.10.pre vii viii 2 Miscellaneous 1 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Preface</TitleText> 1 A01 John Barnden Barnden, John John Barnden 2 A01 Andrew Gargett Gargett, Andrew Andrew Gargett 10 01 JB code ftl.10.01bar 1 34 34 Chapter 2 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Introduction</TitleText> 1 A01 John Barnden Barnden, John John Barnden University of Birmingham 2 A01 Andrew Gargett Gargett, Andrew Andrew Gargett Open University 10 01 JB code ftl.10.p1 35 106 72 Section header 3 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Section 1. General empirical studies, with main focus on metaphor</TitleText> 10 01 JB code ftl.10.02kat 35 54 20 Chapter 4 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Producing metaphor (and other forms of non-literal language) in the laboratory</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Structural and pragmatic effects as seen from the perspective of an experimental psycholinguist</Subtitle> 1 A01 Albert N. Katz Katz, Albert N. Albert N. Katz The University of Western Ontario 20 life event generation task 20 online discussion task 20 passage completion task 20 vehicle completion task 01 In this chapter I argue for the utility of studying nonliteral language production in the laboratory. Three aspects of nonliteral language production were provided as examples: first, inducing non-literal language in interactive communication (and identifying features of the produced language); second, using production techniques to identify the discourse context in which nonliteral language emerges and, finally, examining how production techniques can inform about the basic cognitive mechanisms that underlie metaphor usage. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.03ken 55 84 30 Chapter 5 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Metaphor and one-off pictures</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Touch and vision</Subtitle> 1 A01 John M. Kennedy Kennedy, John M. John M. Kennedy University of Toronto 20 blind 20 children 20 edge 20 line 20 metaphor 20 outline 20 picture 20 surface 20 tactile drawings 01 All representational media support tropes. This chapter considers pictures and asks how <i>pictorial metaphors</i> can be devised by people with relatively little experience in the medium. The examples considered are raised-line drawings devised by blind children and adults. In some, the shapes of objects are anomalous but apt. In others the use of a line contrasts with its use in outline drawings – for example, <i>atmospheric</i> lines surround a target object. The blind and sighted concur on the meaning of pictorial metaphors. The theory of metaphor in drawings presented here treats perception, outline, realistic shape and departures from realism. Pictures have primary meanings, and metaphoric pictures require secondary meanings. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.04mus 85 104 20 Chapter 6 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Metaphor production and metaphor interpretation</TitleText> 1 A01 Andreas Musolff Musolff, Andreas Andreas Musolff University of East Anglia 20 corpus 20 creativity 20 discourse history 20 interpretation 20 metaphor production 20 metaphor reception 20 nation as body/ person 20 questionnaire survey 20 variation 01 Metaphor production and interpretation are intricately connected: the former has the latter as its ostensive target; however, interpretation processes can trigger new metaphor formulations which were unforeseen by the original speaker and would have to count as new productions. This paper looks at corpus- and survey-based evidence of innovative interpretative metaphor use that changes the default meanings of established figurative constructions. Specifically, we look at interpretation-induced changes in the meaning of corporeal metaphors, on the basis of a (1) corpus of British political discourse and (2) a questionnaire survey of more than 1000 respondents from 31 linguistic backgrounds in 10 countries. <br />The corpus-based evidence presented in the first part consists of metaphor-production data that show how situational variation in metaphor use can over time create a semantic-pragmatic drift that changes the dominant meaning of a conventional metaphor expression, thus illustrating diachronic variation. The questionnaire survey, which forms the material for the second part reveals four distinct models for <sc>body</sc>-focused readings (i.e. <sc>nation as geobody, as hierarchical functional whole, as part of speaker’s body, as part of larger body</sc>), plus further <sc>person</sc>-focused readings. These data show synchronic variation. <br />By highlighting significant variation, both data sets put in question the standard theory model of ‘automatic’ metaphor processing and extension. Instead, they indicate a strong production element in metaphor interpretation – and of interpretive aspects in metaphor production. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.05ojh 105 126 22 Chapter 7 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> On the role of perceptual similarity in producing visual metaphors</TitleText> 1 A01 Amitash Ojha Ojha, Amitash Amitash Ojha Indian Institute of Technology Jammu 2 A01 Bipin Indurkhya Indurkhya, Bipin Bipin Indurkhya Jagiellonian University 20 conceptual metaphor 20 perceptual similarity 20 production of metaphor 20 visual metaphors 01 We explore here the role of perceptual similarity in producing visual metaphors. In the first part of the study, we characterize visual metaphors and show how perceptual similarity is used in various kinds of visual metaphors appearing in advertisements. In the second part, we present two studies that show that perceptual similarity is intuitively recognized, and shape-based perceptual similarity is preferred for pictorial metaphors. Finally, in the third part, we propose a system to generate visual metaphors based on algorithmic perceptual similarity. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.p2 107 216 110 Section header 8 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Section 2. General empirical studies – other</TitleText> 10 01 JB code ftl.10.06col 127 174 48 Chapter 9 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> On why people don’t say what they mean</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Production of figurative formulaic language</Subtitle> 1 A01 Herbert L. Colston Colston, Herbert L. Herbert L. Colston University of Alberta 20 comprehension 20 ecological validity 20 figurative 20 formulaic language 20 gratitude acknowledgment 20 human experimentation 20 language understanding 20 pragmatic effects 20 pragmatics 20 production 20 psychology 20 routine formulas 01 The study addresses two problems with recent psycholinguistic research on why people don’t say what they mean, (1) possible underrepresentation in research studies of types of figurative language found in everyday talk, and (2) potential ecological validity problems due to using standard psycholinguistic experimental methodologies and inauthentic language materials. In three experiments, these problems were addressed using authentic productions of a relatively unexplored figurative language type – formulaic language, specifically <i>gratitude acknowledgements</i>, which cover a range of figurativity (e.g., “don’t worry about it”, through, “anytime”), often using hyperbole as part of their functioning – a key focus of the present study. The results demonstrate that speakers use figurative gratitude acknowledgements to achieve the pragmatic effects of politeness and esteem display as well as fondness expression, which are not achieved to the same extents by nonfigurative gratitude acknowledgements. The particular pragmatics of this figurative form, the influence of these pragmatic effects on some theoretical questions, and the broader implications of inclusion of new figurative language forms, as well as authentic language items and methods, in research on figurative language production and pragmatics, are discussed. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.07erv 175 210 36 Chapter 10 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> How nice does it sound?</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">An argumentative approach to the affective aspects of irony production</Subtitle> 1 A01 Francesca Ervas Ervas, Francesca Francesca Ervas University of Cagliari 20 argumentation 20 emotions 20 irony 20 sarcasm 01 The chapter presents irony as a form of the <i>reductio ad absurdum</i> argument having a specific emotional charge, which cannot be found either in literal arguments or in other arguments containing figurative language. The claim of the chapter is that irony production depends on the ironist’s ability to convey the emotional charge together with the point she invites the addressee(s) to infer. An empirical study is presented aiming (1) to understand whether and when participants produce (non-sarcastic/sarcastic) ironic vs. literal arguments having a positive vs. negative emotional charge and (2) to check whether and when participants revise their own (non-sarcastic/sarcastic) ironic vs. literal arguments when they are at the addressee’s side, in both critical and praise irony conditions. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.08gio 211 236 26 Chapter 11 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> How defaultness shapes our language production</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">A usage-based study of discoursal resonance with default interpretations of metaphor and sarcasm</Subtitle> 1 A01 Rachel Giora Giora, Rachel Rachel Giora Tel Aviv University 20 affirmative 20 corpus-based studies 20 default interpretations 20 discourse production 20 literalness 20 metaphor 20 negative 20 nondefault interpretations 20 processing 20 sarcasm 01 The paper focuses on discourse production. It shows that language production unfolds via resonating (Du Bois, 2014) with default interpretations. Default interpretations are defined as automatic responses. However, for an automatic response to be considered a default, it has to be (i) novel; (ii) free of semantic an omaly (Beardsley, 1958) and internal incongruity (Partington, 2011); and (iii) free of contextual information, intonation, discourse markers, etc. Results show that constructions, shown to be interpreted sarcastically or metaphorically when in isolation, were processed faster than nondefault counterparts when in discourse. As a result, corpus-based studies, displaying default interpretations, show that speakers’ discourse is unfolding via utterances’ default rather than nondefault interpretations. This applies here to Hebrew but also to English, German, and Russian. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.09kor 237 262 26 Chapter 12 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Producing figurative meanings</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">The case of idioms</Subtitle> 1 A01 Loes Koring Koring, Loes Loes Koring Macquarie University 20 definiteness marking 20 Dutch 20 figurative expressions 20 idiomaticity 01 This paper explores the hypothesis that definiteness marking can be used as a tool for the speaker to trigger idiomaticity. In an experiment, we asked participants to produce the content of newly created figurative expressions. The results showed that the manipulation of a single parameter, definiteness marking, gave rise to a difference in the type of content participants produced for the novel figurative expressions. In particular, figurative expressions that contained a pragmatically unlicensed definite article gave rise to greater idiomaticity than expressions that contained a (licensed) indefinite article. Violating the felicity conditions on the use of a definite article is therefore one way for the speaker to produce figuration. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.10kre 263 296 34 Chapter 13 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> The production of verbal irony</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">How to be an ironist</Subtitle> 1 A01 Roger J. Kreuz Kreuz, Roger J. Roger J. Kreuz University of Memphis 2 A01 Alexander A. Johnson Johnson, Alexander A. Alexander A. Johnson University of Memphis 20 computer-mediated communication 20 discourse 20 irony 20 pragmatics 20 sentiment analysis 01 Although verbal irony has been a topic of interest for researchers studying language comprehension, the production of irony is also of great interest, since it highlights the situational, pragmatic, and even cultural factors that affect language use. Issues of production and interpretation have, if anything, become even more salient with the rise of email, texting, and social media. Even though such mediums are conversationally impoverished, new conventions and nonliteral markers have evolved to allow verbal irony to both survive and flourish online. This chapter will provide a review and an assessment of the current state of the literature on these topics. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.p3 217 316 100 Section header 14 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Section 3. Empirical and analytical studies aimed at specific applications</TitleText> 10 01 JB code ftl.10.11cil 297 330 34 Chapter 15 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Generating metaphors in product design</TitleText> 1 A01 Nazli Cila Cila, Nazli Nazli Cila Delft University of Technology 2 A01 Paul Hekkert Hekkert, Paul Paul Hekkert Delft University of Technology 20 association 20 mapping 20 metaphor aesthetics 20 metaphor generation 20 metaphor quality 20 metaphoric communication 20 product design 20 product metaphor 01 A product metaphor mediates between the experience process of a user and the generation process of a designer. A user goes through the stages of perceiving that a metaphor has been employed in a product, recognizing its target and source, comprehending why these particular entities are brought together, and appreciating (or not) this association. A designer has a particular intention to attain through the product (i.e., target) and comes up with a meaning to convey accordingly, finds a source that can assign this meaning to the product, and creates a mapping from this source to the product. In this chapter, we will first present a basic framework for metaphoric communication and proceed by elaborating on the designer side of the model. We will address each step through presenting our own research findings and/or analyzing current product metaphors in the market, and transform the framework into a detailed metaphoric communication model. We will end the chapter by discussing the model in a broader context of metaphor generation process and give metaphor producers a summary of considerations on creating more effective and aesthetic metaphors. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.12mac 331 362 32 Chapter 16 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> <i>Rock bottoms, juggling balls</i> and <i>coalprints</i></TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Exploring the metaphors L2 speakers of English produce in face-to-face interaction</Subtitle> 1 A01 Fiona MacArthur MacArthur, Fiona Fiona MacArthur Universidad de Extremadura 20 conversation 20 English as a second language 20 English as lingua franca 20 EuroCoAT 20 metaphor 20 production 20 repetition 20 systematicity 20 VOICE 01 In comparison with the interest shown in the difficulties second language (L2) speakers have in understanding English metaphors, very little attention has been paid to examining the metaphors they actually produce, particularly in the oral mode. In this chapter I examine the metaphors used by L2 speakers in face-to-face interaction with native (L1) speakers or with other L2 speakers, using data from three different sources: the Vienna-Oxford Corpus of International English (VOICE), the European Corpus of Academic Talk (EuroCoAT), as well as smaller databases compiled in the course of other research. I consider the following aspects of metaphor production in L2 conversation: its frequency, its general characteristics, its conventionality, and some of the factors that prompt its use in discourse. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.13nac 363 388 26 Chapter 17 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Figurative production in a computer-mediated discussion forum</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Metaphors about relationship abuse</Subtitle> 1 A01 Susan Nacey Nacey, Susan Susan Nacey Inland Norway University of Applied Science 20 computer-mediated discourse 20 frames 20 metaphorical analogies 20 relationship abuse 20 scenarios 01 When people undergo traumatic events, they frequently turn to metaphor in an attempt to make what might initially seem indescribable into something comprehensible to others, and/or to help themselves reach a clearer understanding of what has happened to them. This investigation explores such metaphorical language produced in computer-mediated discourse by survivors of relationship abuse to communicate about various aspects of their experience, thus shedding light on a traditionally “taboo” subject that many people find difficult to broach. The analysis first explores the ways survivors “frame” their experience through a particular source domain, and then looks at the various source domain “scenarios” that are drawn upon to elaborate particular salient details of the abuse. The chapter thus builds upon established theories about metaphorical frames and scenarios to explore what we may learn about a particular group (i.e. relationship abuse survivors) through analyzing their production of metaphor. In this way, it demonstrates why the theory of metaphor and the field of figurative language production matter in the real world. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.14tur 389 418 30 Chapter 18 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> The production of time-related metaphors by people who have experienced pregnancy loss</TitleText> 1 A01 Sarah Turner Turner, Sarah Sarah Turner Coventry University 2 A01 Jeannette Littlemore Littlemore, Jeannette Jeannette Littlemore University of Birmingham 3 A01 Danielle Fuller Fuller, Danielle Danielle Fuller University of Alberta 4 A01 Karolina Kuberska Kuberska, Karolina Karolina Kuberska University of Cambridge 5 A01 Sheelagh McGuinness McGuinness, Sheelagh Sheelagh McGuinness University of Bristol 20 bereavement 20 emotion 20 grief 20 metaphor 20 pregnancy loss 20 time 01 In this chapter we focus on the ways in which people who have experienced pregnancy loss use metaphor to describe the experience, with a particular focus on time-related metaphor. The data come from an ESRC-funded study that investigates the ways in which people who have experienced bereavement following pregnancy loss communicate their experiences. We use these data to explore the ways in which the bereaved (and those who support them) use time-related metaphors to talk about their experiences and suggest ways in which such an analysis can be used to provide insight into the experiences of the bereaved. We conclude by discussing the implications of our findings for friends, colleagues and relatives. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.p4 317 532 216 Section header 19 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Section 4. Other theoretical analysis and cognitive or computational modelling</TitleText> 10 01 JB code ftl.10.15mcg 419 448 30 Chapter 20 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Metaphor generation through context sensitive distributional semantics</TitleText> 1 A01 Stephen McGregor McGregor, Stephen Stephen McGregor action.ai 2 A01 Matthew Purver Purver, Matthew Matthew Purver Cognitive Science Research Group, School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London & Department of Knowledge Technologies, Institut Jožef Stefan, Ljubljana 3 A01 Geraint Wiggins Wiggins, Geraint Geraint Wiggins Vrije Universiteit Brussel & Queen Mary University of London 20 context sensitive semantic modelling 20 distributional semantics 20 metaphor generation 20 natural language processing 20 pragmatics 01 In this paper, we outline a preliminary methodology for generating metaphor based on contextual projections of representations built up through a statistical analysis of a large-scale linguistic corpus. These projections involve defining subspaces of co-occurrence statistics in which we show that metaphors can be modelled as mappings between congruent regions of semantic representations. We offer this methodology as an empirical implementation pointing towards a resolution of theoretical stances, at times incompatible, construing metaphor as on the one hand an artefact of underlying cognitive processes and on the other hand a product of the environmentally situated generation of ephemeral conceptual schemes. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.16pop 449 468 20 Chapter 21 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Mind the gap</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Expressing affect with hyperbole and hyperbolic figures</Subtitle> 1 A01 Mihaela Popa-Wyatt Popa-Wyatt, Mihaela Mihaela Popa-Wyatt Leibniz-Zentrum Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft (ZAS) 20 affect 20 hyperbole 20 hyperbolic figures 20 irony 20 metaphor 20 salience-shift 01 Hyperbole is traditionally understood as exaggeration. I argue instead that the point of hyperbole is <i>emphasis</i>. By overstating that things are <i>greater</i> (<i>lesser</i>) than expected, hoped, or desired, we shift the salience of the target property, thus making it more emphatic. This enables to express surprise or other relevant affect in reaction to how much, or how little, our expectations have been either exceeded or thwarted. This purpose is well suited to hyperbolic expression. This is because hyperbole naturally draws a contrast between how things are and how they were expected to be, exaggerating the gap between them. I conclude by considering the characteristics of hyperbolic figures where hyperbole mixes with other figures of speech. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.17rui 469 510 42 Chapter 22 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Figurative language</TitleText> <Subtitle textformat="02">Relations and constraints</Subtitle> 1 A01 Francisco José Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, Francisco José Francisco José Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez University of La Rioja 20 cognitive operations 20 constraints on figures of speech 20 embodied cognition 20 figurative language 20 figures of speech 20 pragmatic inferencing 01 The present paper discusses two aspects of the production of figures of speech. The first one is their relatedness, which is established on the basis of an analysis of their cognitive configuration in terms of combinations of cognitive operations. Such operations are applied to the creation of basic figures of speech such as metaphor, metonymy, understatement, overstatement, irony, paradox, and oxymoron. Other traditional figurative uses of language are then accounted for with reference to these more basic ones. The second aspect that this paper addresses is the question of constraints on figurative thinking. In this respect, it reviews previous proposals on the topic and extends their application to other cases of figurative language use. The resulting account links figurative language up with the notion of embodied cognition. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.18vea 511 532 22 Chapter 23 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02"> Metaphor as sign and as symbol</TitleText> 1 A01 Tony Veale Veale, Tony Tony Veale University College Dublin 20 deliberate metaphors 20 potential metaphors 20 signs 20 symbols 01 Metaphors come as second nature to users of language because they are so often the norm. We trade in them deftly, to the point of seeming indifference to, and sometimes even ignorance of, their figurative natures. But the opposite is also true, since words that are offered with the plainest of intentions can be granted a metaphorical significance by those who wish to perceive it. In this paper we contribute to the debate about <i>deliberate</i> metaphors by exploring a related concept, the <i>potential</i> metaphor. Any text that supports a non-literal interpretation is a potential metaphor, regardless of its author’s avowed intentions. We build on this distinction to model the mechanical generation of metaphors as an opportunistic process, whereby potential metaphors are converted into deliberate metaphors. We argue that the distinction between potential and deliberate is mirrored in that between signs and symbols, and demonstrate how this understanding leads to a more nuanced basis for generating and interpreting metaphors on a machine. 10 01 JB code ftl.10.tind 533 542 10 Miscellaneous 24 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Topic Index</TitleText> 10 01 JB code ftl.10.aind 543 550 8 Miscellaneous 25 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Author Index</TitleText> 10 01 JB code ftl.10.ind Miscellaneous 26 <TitleType>01</TitleType> <TitleText textformat="02">Topic Index</TitleText> 02 JBENJAMINS John Benjamins Publishing Company 01 John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam/Philadelphia NL 04 20201217 2020 John Benjamins B.V. 02 WORLD 08 1135 gr 01 JB 1 John Benjamins Publishing Company +31 20 6304747 +31 20 6739773 bookorder@benjamins.nl 01 https://benjamins.com 01 WORLD US CA MX 21 70 14 01 02 JB 1 00 99.00 EUR R 02 02 JB 1 00 104.94 EUR R 01 JB 10 bebc +44 1202 712 934 +44 1202 712 913 sales@bebc.co.uk 03 GB 21 14 02 02 JB 1 00 83.00 GBP Z 01 JB 2 John Benjamins North America +1 800 562-5666 +1 703 661-1501 benjamins@presswarehouse.com 01 https://benjamins.com 01 US CA MX 21 1 14 01 gen 02 JB 1 00 149.00 USD