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Part of
World Englishes in their Local Multilingual Ecologies
Edited by Peter Siemund, Gardy Stein and Manuela Vida-Mannl
[Hamburg Studies on Linguistic Diversity 9] 2025
► pp. 40–63

Chapter 3
Hierarchies in the language ecology of Botswana

 | University of the Free StateBloemfontein | University of Hamburg
This chapter provides insights into Botswana’s rich language ecology and prevailing language hierarchies. English holds a prominent position as the de facto official language, although its everyday use is limited to a small population, namely the educated urban elite. Setswana, as the de facto national language, is the most widely spoken L1, with substantial numbers of the population also acquiring this Bantu language as their L2; it is used extensively across most domains of everyday life. English and Setswana compete at the top of the language hierarchy of Botswana, with English being key to upward social and economic mobility, while Setswana symbolizes national unity and expresses solidarity and close social ties. Other Bantu languages, such as Shekgalagadi, Shiyeyi, Sebirwa, and even Ikalanga, the largest of the minority languages, play only minor roles in the public domains. At the bottom of the language power scale are the languages of the former hunter-gatherers, the first people of Southern Africa, namely the Tuu and Kx’a languages, followed by the languages of the Khoe language family. These languages are gradually replaced by Setswana and regionally dominant Bantu languages, and some are on the verge of extinction. While the smaller languages are not in competition with English, Setswana is, and this power struggle might have a significant impact on the language ecology of the country.
Keywords: Botswana, English, language hierarchy, language replacement, Setswana
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.A bird’s eye view of Botswana’s language ecology
  • 3.English, still a foreign language after 200 years
  • 4.Setswana, the language of national identity
  • 5.Language hierarchies and hegemonies
  • 6.Summary and outlook
  • Author queries
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • References
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