Cover not available
Part of
Amazonian Spanish: Language Contact and Evolution
Edited by Stephen Fafulas
[Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics 23] 2020
► pp. 7–34

Chapter 1
Language loss and language gain in Amazonia

On newly emergent varieties of a national language

| James Cook University

The Amazon Basin is renowned for its high linguistic diversity. The history of Amazonian languages has been marred with language extinction and loss ever since the European conquest. Newly emergent varieties of the national languages – Portuguese and Spanish – bear the substratum influence of the indigenous languages. In many Amazonian languages, the necessity of always marking how the speaker knows things and being precise is linked to the obligatory category of evidentiality – grammatical marking of information source. In numerous varieties of Amazonian and Andean Spanish, a pragmatic convention to state the information source accounts for the evidential overtones of dizque across South America, where it has become an established feature of language varieties transmitted to children.

Keywords: Amazonian languages, linguistic diversity, evidentiality, language contact, ethnolect
Article outline
  • 1.Lowland Amazonian languages and their speakers: A backdrop
  • 2.The Portuguese of Amazonian Indians: Some examples
  • 3.Portuguese spoken by the Tariana of the Vaupés River Basin area
  • 4.Envoi
  • Notes
  • References
Published online: 15 July 2020
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/ihll.23.01aik
References
Abreu Gomez, C.
(2009) Aquisição do subsistema de preposições no português em contato no Xingu. In A. M. Carvalho (Ed.), Português em contato (pp. 165–76). Madrid, Spain/Frankfurt, Germany: Iberoamericana/Vervuert.Google Scholar
Adelaar, W. F. H.
(1991) The endangered languages problem: South America. In R. H. Robins & E. H. Uhlenbeck (Eds.), Endangered languages (pp. 45–91). Oxford, UK: Berg.Google Scholar
(2000) La diversidad lingüística y la extinción de las lenguas. In F. Queixalós & O. Renault-Lescure (Eds.), As línguas amazônicas hoje (pp. 29–36). Paris, France: IRD.Google Scholar
(2004) The languages of the Andes. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Aikhenvald, A. Y.
(1995) Bare (Languages of the World/Materials 100). Munich: Lincom.Google Scholar
(1999) The Arawak language family. In R. M. W. Dixon & A. Y. Aikhenvald (Eds.), The Amazonian languages (pp. 65–105). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
(2003) A grammar of Tariana. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
(2004) Evidentiality. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
(2010) Language contact in Amazonia. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
(2012) The essence of mirativity. Linguistic Typology, 16 , 435–85. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2013) Shifting language attitudes in north-west Amazonia. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 222 , 195–216.Google Scholar
(2014) Language contact, and language blend: Kumandene Tariana of north-west Amazonia. International Journal of American Linguistics, 80 , 323–70. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2015) The languages of the Amazon. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
(2018) Evidentials and language contact. In A. Y. Aikhenvald (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of evidentiality (pp. 148–172). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
forthcoming). Linguistic areas in Amazonia. To appear in S. S. Mufwene & A. M. Escobar Eds. The Cambridge handbook of language contact Cambridge, UK Cambridge University Press
Aikhenvald, A. Y. & Dixon, R. M. W.
(Eds.) (2006) Grammars in contact. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Alcázar, A.
(2018)  Dizque and other emergent evidential forms in Romance languages. In A. Y. Aikhenvald (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of evidentiality (pp. 725–740). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Anchieta, J. de
(1595) Arte de grammatica da lingoa mais vsada na costa do brasil. Coimbra, Portugal: Antonio de Mariz.Google Scholar
Andrade-Ciudad, L. F.
(2007) Usos de dice en castellano andino: Estrategias evidenciales y narrativas en contacto con el quechua (Unpublished MA thesis). Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima.Google Scholar
Andrade Ciudad, L. F.
(2016) The Spanish of the Northern Peruvian Andes. A sociohistorical and dialectological account. Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Babel, A.
(2009) Dizque, evidentiality and stance in Valley Spanish. Language in Society, 38 , 487–511. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bessa Freire, J. R.
(2003) Língua Geral Amazônica: A história de um esquecimento. In J. R. Bessa Freire & M. C. Rosa (Eds.), Línguas Gerais. Política lingüística e catequese na América do Sul no período colonial (pp. 195–209). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editora da UFRJ.Google Scholar
Bezerra, Z. A.
(2005) Gramática Kuripako. Mimeographed. Anapolis, Brazil: Missão Novas Tribos do Brasil.Google Scholar
(2012) Dicionário Kuripako/Português. Mimeographed. Anapolis, Brazil: Missão Novas Tribos do Brasil.Google Scholar
Boas, F.
(1947) Kwakiutl grammar, with a glossary of suffixes, edited by H. Boas Yampolsky, with the assistance of Z. S. Harris. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, n.s., 37 , pt. 3, 203–315. Philadelphia, PA: American Philosophical Society.Google Scholar
Bollé, A., & Maurer, P.
(2016) Creoles. In A. Ledgeway & M. Maiden (Eds.), The Oxford guide to the Romance languages (pp. 447–66). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Braggio, S. L. B.
(2015) A variedade étnica Português-Xerente Akwẽ: Subsídio para a educação escolar indígena. PAPIA, 25 , 121–40.Google Scholar
Brinton, D. G.
(1892) Studies in South American native languages. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 30 , 45–105.Google Scholar
Bunte, P. A. & Kendall, M. B.
(1981) When is an error not an error? Notes on language contact and the question of interference. Anthropological Linguistics, 23 , 1–7.Google Scholar
Burgos, M.
(1994) The Witotos and the rubber boom: The silent genocide. A study through the chronicles of explorers of the Amazon basin. In J. Meunier & A. M. Savarin (Eds.), The Amazonian chronicles (pp. 1–23). San Francisco, CA: Mercury House.Google Scholar
Campos, O. G. L. A. S. & A. C. S. Rodrigues
(1996) Flexão nominal: Indicação de pluralidade no sintagma nominal. In A. T. de Castilho & M. Basílio (Eds.), Gramática do Português falado (Vol. III , pp. 111–135). Campinas, Brazil: Editora da Unicamp.Google Scholar
Carlin, E. B.
(2006) Feeling the need: The borrowing of Cariban functional categories into Mawayana (Arawak). In A. Y. Aikhenvald & R. M. W. Dixon (Eds.), Grammars in contact: A cross-linguistic typology (pp. 313–332). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
(2011) Nested identities in the Southern Guyana-Suriname corner. In A. Hornborg & J. D. Hill (Eds.), Ethnicity in ancient Amazonia (pp. 225–236). Denver, CO: University Press of Colorado.Google Scholar
Carvalho, A. M.
(Ed) (2009) Português em contato. Madrid, Spain/Frankfurt, Germany: Iberoamericana/Vervuert. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Castelnau, F. de
(1851) Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud, de Rio de Janeiro à Lima, et de Lima su Para, executée par ordre du gouvernement français pendant les années 1843 à 1847 (Vol. 5 ). Paris: Bertrand.Google Scholar
Christino, B.
(2015) Gender agreement in Huni-Kuin Portuguese noun phrases. PAPIA, 25 , 77–102.Google Scholar
Crevels, M.
(2012) Language endangerment in South America: The clock is ticking. In L. Campbell & V. Grondona (Eds.), The indigenous languages of South America: A comprehensive guide (pp. 167–233). Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cruz, A. da
(2011) Fonologia e gramática do Nheengatú. A língua geral falada pelos povos Baré, Warekena e Baniwa. Utrecht, Netherlands: LOT.Google Scholar
Cunha, A. G. da
(1978) Dicionário histórico das palavras portuguesas de origem tupí. São Paulo, Brazil: Melhoramentos.Google Scholar
d’Ans, A.-M.
(1982) L’Amazonie péruvienne indigène. Paris, France: Payot.Google Scholar
de Granda, G.
(2002) Un processo de transferencia bidireccional sucesiva en el área andina. Evidenciales reportativos entre quechua y español, in his Español y Quechua en el área andina suramericana (pp. 124–9). Valladolid, Spain: Valladolid University.Google Scholar
(2003a) El noroeste argentino, área lingüística andina, in his Estudios Lingüísticos Hispanoamericanos (pp. 131–150). Frankfurt, Germany: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
(2003b) Retenciones morfosintácticas en el español del Noroeste Argentino, in his Estudios Lingüísticos Hispanoamericanos (pp. 151–172). Frankfurt, Germany: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
(2003c) Transferencias bidireccionales sucesivas de nivel morfosintáctico en dos áreas bilingües hispanoamericanas. In his Estudios Lingüísticos Hispanoamericanos (pp. 75–83). Frankfurt, Germany: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
(2003d) Estudios Lingüísticos Hispanoamericanos. Frankfurt, Germany: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Denevan, W. M.
(1976a) Introduction. In W. M. Denevan (Ed.), The native population of the Americas in 1492 (pp. 1–12). Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
(1976b) The aboriginal population of Amazonia. In W. M. Denevan (Ed.), The native population of the Americas in 1492 (pp. 205–234). Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Dettoni, R. do V.
(2003) A concordância de gênero na anafora pronominal: Variação e mudança lingüística na baixada cuiabana – Mato Grosso (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). UFMG/POSTLIN.Google Scholar
Dixon, R. M. W.
(2004) Proto-Arawá phonology. Anthropological Linguistics, 46 , 1–83.Google Scholar
Dixon, R. M. W. & Aikhenvald, A. Y.
(Eds.) (1999) The Amazonian languages. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dobyns, H. F.
(1966) Estimating Aboriginal American population: An appraisal of techniques with a new hemispheric estimate. Current Anthropology, 7 , 395–416. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dorian, N. C.
(2010) Investigating variation. The effects of social organization and social setting. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dubert, F. & Galves, C.
(2016) Galician and Portuguese. In A. Ledgeway & M. Maiden (Eds.), The Oxford guide to the Romance languages (pp. 411–46). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Emmerich, C.
(1984) A língua de contato no Alto Xingu. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.Google Scholar
(1991) O português de contato no Parque Indígena do Xingu. Revista Internacional de Língua Portuguesa, 5/6 , 53–71.Google Scholar
Emmerich, C. & de Paiva, M. C.
(2009) Português xinguano: Origem e trajetória. In A. M. Carvalho (Ed.), Português em contato (pp. 153–162). Madrid, Spain/Frankfurt, Germany: Iberoamericana/Vervuert. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Epps, P. & Bolaños, K.
(2017) Reconsidering ‘the Makú’ language family of northwest Amazonia. International Journal of American Linguistics, 83 , 467–507. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, C. A.
(1964) Diglossia. In D. Hymes (Ed.), Language in culture and society (pp. 429–439). New York, NY: Harper International.Google Scholar
Fontaine, L.
(2008) Paroles d’échanges et règles sociales chez les indiens yucuna d’Amazonie colombienne. Paris, France: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
Franchetto, B.
(Ed.) (2010) Alto Xingu. Uma sociedade multilíngue. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Museu do Índio.Google Scholar
Franchetto, B. & Heckenberger, M.
(Eds.) (2000) Os povos do Alto Xingu. História e cultura. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editora UFRJ.Google Scholar
Galvão, V. C. C.
(2001) Evidencialidade e gramaticalização no português do Brasil: Os usos da expressão diz que. Araraquara: UNESP.Google Scholar
Gomez-Imbert, E.
(1982) La verdad de los Tatuyo. Paper presented at the Primer Seminario de Antropología amazónica colombiana. Instituto Colombiano de Antropología. Bogotá, Colombia.Google Scholar
(2003) Voir et entendre comme sources de connaissance grammaticalement explicites. In C. Vandeloise (Ed.), Langues et cognition (pp. 117–33). Paris, France: Hermès Science.Google Scholar
Granberry, J., & Vescelius, G.
(2004) Language of the pre-Columbian Antilles. Tuscaloosa, AL: The University of Alabama Press.Google Scholar
Green, L., & Green, D.
(2013) Knowing the day, knowing the world. Engaging Amerindian thought in public archaeology. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar
Hemming, J.
(1978a) Red gold: The conquest of the Brazilian Indians. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
(1978b) The search for El Dorado. London, UK: Book Club Associates.Google Scholar
(2008) Tree of rivers. The story of the Amazon. London, UK: Thames & Hudson.Google Scholar
Jara Yupanqui, I. M.
(2012) Peruvian Amazonian Spanish: Linguistic variation, social meaning and identities. Sociolinguistic Studies, 6 , 445–469.Google Scholar
Jensen, C.
(1999) Tupí-Guaraní. In R. M. W. Dixon & A. Y. Aikhenvald (Eds.), The Amazonian languages (pp. 125–64). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Joyce, M. de L.
(1951) Caderno da doutrina pella lingoa dos Manaos. Manuscrito do séc. XVIII estudado e anotado. Universidade de São Paulo. Faculdade de filosofia, ciências e letras. Boletim No 136.Google Scholar
Kany, C.
(1944) Impersonal dizque and its variants in American Spanish. Hispanic Review, 12 , 168–177. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kaufman, T.
(1994) The native languages of South America. In C. Moseley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), The atlas of the world’s languages (pp. 46–76). London, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Kolehmainen, L., Meriläinen, L., & Riionheimo, H.
(2014) Interlingual reduction: Evidence from language contacts, translation and second language acquisition. In L. Paulasto, L. Meriläinen, H. Riionheimo, & M. Kok (Eds.), Language contacts at the cross-roads (pp. 3–33). Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars.Google Scholar
Kracke, W. H.
(2009) Dream as deceit, dream as truth: The grammar of telling dreams. Anthropological Linguistics, 51 , 61–77.Google Scholar
Lacan, J.
(1988) The ego in Freud’s theory and in the technique of psychoanalysis, 1954–1955. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Lange, C.
(2012) Syntax of spoken Indian English. Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Loukotka, C.
(1968) Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles, CA: Latin American Centre, University of California.Google Scholar
Lucchesi, D.
(2012) A differenciação da língua portuguesa no Brasil e o contato entre línguas. Estudos de Lingüística Galega, 4 , 45–65.Google Scholar
Lucchesi, D. & Macedo, A.
(1997) A variação na concordância de gênero no Português de contato no Alto Xingu. PAPIA, 9 , 20–36.Google Scholar
Macedo, A.
(2000) Pidginization and depidginization in the Portuguese of the Upper Xingu. In M. C. Mollica & M. E. Martelotta (Eds.), Análises lingüísticas: A contribuição de Alzira Macedo (pp. 93–105). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.Google Scholar
McConvell, P. & Meakins, F.
(2005) Gurinji Kriol: A mixed language emerges from code-switching. Australian Journal of Linguistics, 25 , 9–30. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Meakins, F., & O’Shannessy, C.
(Eds.) (2016) Loss and Renewal: Australian languages since colonisation. De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Meggers, B. J.
(1971) Amazon: Man and culture in a counterfeit paradise. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.Google Scholar
Mello, H. R., Baxter, A., Holm, J., & Megenney, W.
(1998) O Portuguies vernáculo do Brasil. In M. Perl & A. Schwegler (Eds.), América negra. Panorámica actual de los estudios lingüísticos sobre variedades hispanas, portuguessas y criollas (pp. 72–137). Madrid, Spain/Frankfurt, Germany: Iberoamericana/Vervuert.. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Moreira Neto, C. de A.
(1988) Indios da Amazônia: De maioria a menoria (1750–1850). Petrópolis, Brazil: Vozes.Google Scholar
Naro, A. J., & Pereira Scherre, M. M.
(1999) Variable concord in Portuguese. In J. McWhorter (Ed.), Language change and language contact in pidgins and creoles (pp. 235–55). Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Natterer, J.
(1831) Word lists in Tariana, Manao and Warekena. Unpublished ms.Google Scholar
Neves, E. G.
(1998) Paths in dark waters: Archaeology as indigenous history in the Upper Rio Negro basin, northwest Amazonia (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Indiana University.Google Scholar
O’Shannessy, C.
(2013) The role of multiple sources in the formation of an innovative auxiliary category in Light Warlpiri, a new Australian mixed language. Language, 89 , 328–53. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Olbertz, H.
(2005)  Dizque en el español andino ecuatoriano: Conservador e innovador. In H. Olbertz & P. C. Muysken (Eds.), Encuentros y conflictos. Bilingüismo y contacto de lenguas en el mundo andino (pp. 77–94). Madrid, Spain: Iberoamericana. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2007)  Dizque in Mexican Spanish: The subjectification of reportative meaning. Italian Journal of Linguistics/Rivista di linguistica, 19 (1), 151–172.Google Scholar
Oliveira, G. Müller de
(2000) Indiens urbains au Brésil. Considérations démographiques, éducatives et politico-linguistiques. In L.-J. Calvet & A. Mourissou-Mouyama (Eds.), Le plurilinguisme urbain (pp. 183–198). Paris, France: Institut de la Francophonie / Diffusion Didier Erudition.Google Scholar
Oliver, J. R.
(1989) The archaeological, linguistic and ethnohistorical evidence for the expansion of Arawakan into Northwestern Venezuela and Northeastern Colombia (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Illinois.Google Scholar
Paiva, M. da C. de
(1997) Hiperfonologização no Português de contato. PAPIA, 9 , 52–64.Google Scholar
Payne, D. L.
(1991) A classification of Maipuran (Arawakan) languages based on shared lexical retentions. In D. C. Derbyshire & G. K. Pullum (Eds.), Handbook of Amazonian languages (Vol. 3 , pp. 355–499). Berlin, Germany: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Pereira Scherre, M. M. & Naro, A. J.
(2009) Sobre as origens estruturais do português brasileiro – o garimpo continua. In A. M. Carvalho (Ed.), Português em contato (pp. 131–152). Madrid, Spain/Frankfurt, Germany: Iberoamericana/Vervuert. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Petersen, J. B., Neves, E. G. & Heckenberger, M. J.
(2001) Gift from the past: Terra preta and prehistoric Amerindian occupation in Amazonia. In C. McEwan, C. Barreto, & E. Neves (Eds.), Unknown Amazon: Culture and nature in Ancient Brazil (pp. 86–105). London, UK: British Museum Press.Google Scholar
Queixalós, F. & Renault-Lescure, O.
(Eds.) (2000) As línguas amazônicas hoje. Paris, France: IRD.Google Scholar
Ramírez-Cruz, H.
(2012) Spanish in indigenous lands. In C. Patiño & J. L. Bernal (Eds.), Language in Colombia (pp. 673–693). Bogotá, Colombia.: Academia Colombiana de la Lengua & Instituto Caro y Cuervo.Google Scholar
Reich, U.
(2003) Mudança sintática e pragmática na Língua Geral Amazônica (LGA): Marcação de caso e sistema pronominal. In J. R. Bessa Freire & M. C. Rosa (Eds.), Línguas Gerais. Política lingüística e catequese na América do Sul no período colonial (pp. 167–84). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editora da UFRJ.Google Scholar
Renault-Lescure, O.
(1990) As línguas faladas pelas crianças do Rio Negro (Amazonas): Descontinuidade na transmissão familiar das línguas. In H. Brito Franco y Leal & M. de Fátima Mendes (Eds.), Crianças na Amazônia: Um futuro ameaçado (pp. 315–24). Belem, Brazil: Universidade Federal do Pará – UNICEF.Google Scholar
Rivet, P., & Tastevin, C.
(1938) Les langues Arawak du Purús et du Jurúa (Groupe Arauá). Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris, 30 , 71–114. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rodrigues, A. D.
(1986) Línguas brasileiras. Para o conhecimento das línguas indigenas. São Paulo: Edições Loyola.Google Scholar
(1996) As línguas gerais sul-americanas. Papia, 4 , 6–18.Google Scholar
(2000) Panorama das línguas indígenas da Amazônia. In F. Queixalós & O. Renault-Lescure (Eds.), As línguas amazônicas hoje (pp. 15–28). Paris, France: IRD.Google Scholar
(2001) Biodiversidade e diversidade etnolingüística na Amazônia. In M. do Socorro Simões (Ed.), Cultura e biodiversidade entre o rio e a floresta (Vol. 1 , pp. 269–78). Belém, Brazil: Universidade Federal do Pará.Google Scholar
(2014) ‘On the influence of indigenous languages on Brazilian Portuguese’. DELTA, 30 , 443–6. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Roosevelt, A.
(1991) Moundbuilders of the Amazon: Geophysical archaeology on Marajó Island, Brazil. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Rosenblat, Á.
(1976) The population of Hispaniola at the time of Columbus. In W. M. Denevan (Ed.), The native population of the Americas in 1492 (pp. 13–34). Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Rouse, I.
(1992) The Tainos: Rise and decline of the people who greeted Columbus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Sá Amado, R. de
(2015) O Português étnico dos povos Timbira. PAPIA, 25 , 103–119.Google Scholar
Schiffrin, H.
(1998) Diglossia as a sociolinguistic situation. In F. Coulmas (Ed.), The handbook of sociolinguistics (pp. 205–16). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Schmidt-Riese, R.
(2003) Condições da mudança em nheengatu: Pragmática e contatos lingüístics. In J. R. Bessa Freire & M. C. Rosa (Eds.), Línguas Gerais. Política lingüística e catequese na América do Sul no período colonial (pp. 147–66). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editora da UFRJ.Google Scholar
Seki, L.
(1999) The Upper Xingu as an incipient linguistic area. In R. M. W. Dixon & A. Y. Aikhenvald (Eds.), The Amazonian languages (pp. 417–30). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
(2010) Alto Xingu: Uma sociedade multilíngue? In B. Franchetto & M. Heckenberger (Eds.), Os povos fo Alto Xingu. História e cultura (pp. 57–86). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editora UFRJ.Google Scholar
Silverman, H. & Isbell, W. H.
(2008) Handbook of South American archaeology. New York, NY: Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Spix, J. B. von & Martius, C. F. P. von
(1831) Reise in Brasilien in den Jahren 1817–20. Munich: Lindauer.Google Scholar
Sorensen Jr., A. P.
(1967 (1972)) Multilingualism in the Northwest Amazon. American Anthropologist, 69 , 670–84 (reprinted in J. B. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics (pp. 78–93). Harmondsworth: Penguin).Google Scholar
Stenzel, K., & Gomez-Imbert, E.
(2018) Evidentiality in Tukanoan languages. In A. Y. Aikhenvald (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of evidentiality (pp. 357–387). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tovar, A. & De Tovar, C. L.
(1984) Catálogo de las lenguas de América del Sur. Madrid: Editorial Gredos.Google Scholar
Trask, R. L.
(1993) A dictionary of grammatical terms in linguistics. London, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Travis, C.
(2006) Dizque: A Colombian evidentiality strategy. Linguistics, 44 , 1269–97. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wagley, C.
(1940) The effects of depopulation upon social organization as illustrated by the Tapirapé Indians. Transactions of the New York Academy of Science, Ser. 2, Vol. 3 (1), 12–16. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Weber, D. J.
(1986) Information perspective, profile, and patterns in Quechua. In W. L. Chafe & J. Nichols (Eds.), Evidentiality: The linguistic coding of epistemology (pp. 137–55). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Weinreich, U.
(1964) Languages in contact: Findings and problems. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Wojtylak, K. I.
(2017) A grammar of Murui (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). James Cook University.Google Scholar
Cited by

Cited by 1 other publications

Fafulas, Stephen A., Nicholas Henriksen & Erin O’Rourke
2022. Sound change and gender-based differences in isolated regions: acoustic analysis of intervocalic phonemic stops by Bora-Spanish bilinguals. Linguistics Vanguard 8:s5 ► pp. 557 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 17 september 2023. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.