The Interaction Hypothesis is one of the explanations for second language acquisition (SLA) (Hatch 1978; Long 1983). Numerous studies have shown that interaction facilitates SLA because learners have the opportunity to negotiate language input, receive feedback and modify their output (Long 1996; Pica 2013). However, there is little experimental research on interaction from this perspective in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) settings. The main goal of this chapter is to provide an overview of the main constructs of the interactionist framework and to see how they have been researched in studies that analyze the interlanguage of CLIL learners regarding their negotiation routines, attention to form and corrective feedback episodes.
One of the most decisive factors influencing the learning of a second or a foreign language (L2/FL) seems to be learner motivation. Studies into motivation and L2/FL learning abound, but studies specifically targeting the role of language learning motivation in CLIL are scarce. This chapter will further illuminate this relationship. The chapter accounts for the theoretical underpinnings of motivation research, primarily in the form of the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS; Dörnyei 2005, 2009), but also integrative and instrumental motivation (Gardner & Lambert 1959). Further, an overview of existing studies on motivation and CLIL is presented. The chapter ends with a discussion on the pedagogical implications of previous research and how to move forward with CLIL, language learning and motivation.
The study compares how three groups of learners at different educational levels in CLIL, post-CLIL and EFL classes modify their requests which were elicited by means of a written discourse completion task with two situations (different power relations). Data analysis is based on earlier request taxonomies (Alcón-Soler et al. 2005; Blum-Kulka et al. 1989), but the study also introduces new pragmatic features that appeared in the learners’ data. Qualitative and quantitative differences point to a duality in how learners use softening and aggravating request modifications, attributed to insufficient sociopragmatic knowledge. Among other finer results, the study shows that CLIL, as an educational approach, does not necessarily contribute to enhancing learners’ pragmatic competence if seen through the lens of making requests.
This chapter offers a perspective on texts written in a CLIL class, highlighting the role of the interpersonal meanings covered by the appraisal framework (Martin & White 2005) in constructing the different genres of history, which are not only factual, but also include assigning value and indicating point of view. An analysis of appraisal in an 11,000-word longitudinal corpus of CLIL secondary student writing shows how texts are more or less successful in their selection of features from the appraisal systems as they respond to prompts, the higher-rated texts creating a more appropriate voice for the genre (Coffin 2006). Awareness of the categories of interpersonal meanings can allow teachers to make genre expectations explicit, helping improve student writing.
This chapter focuses on the register variable of tenor within systemic functional linguistics (SFL) to examine spoken interaction involving secondary CLIL history learners in two contexts: one-to-one interviews with a researcher, and role-plays with peers. Tenor refers to the role relationship between interactants, and its impact on language use. We adapt speech function analyses developed by Eggins and Slade (1997) for ordinary conversation to settings in which CLIL learners jointly construct aspects of content knowledge in one subject, history. The findings show that the negotiation and roles assigned to participants impacted on the ways the learners managed to construct history content knowledge. We argue that speech function analysis can throw light on how role relationships in spoken interaction can create or restrict affordances for the expression of content knowledge in CLIL.
This chapter addresses the role of multimodal semiotic systems in teaching science through English as a second language. We argue that pedagogical concerns should focus on language and other semiotic choices that teachers use to scaffold their students’ learning. Through an investigation of the inter-relationship of different semiotic systems (modalities), we are able to develop models of best practice that can help inform teachers. We consider two broad educational contexts: one that is becoming more prevalent, where it may happen that English is neither the primary language for the students nor for the teachers, as in Hong Kong, and one that is commonplace in places, such as Australia, where there is a large proportion of students with English as an additional language studying in a country where English is the predominant language. We use video data from two secondary science classrooms in these two contexts to analyse how the teachers provide multiple access points to meaning and how they scaffold the learners into the disciplinary literacy of science.
This chapter problematizes the Classroom Interactional Competence (CIC) of learners and teachers working in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) contexts. Through Multimodal Conversation Analysis (CA), we consider how CIC is enacted in dialogues which focus on both subject content and English. Our analysis reveals that (a) teachers’ deployment of multimodal resources ensures comprehension and self-selection; (b) teachers’ questions and evaluative feedback may play a major role in guiding the students; (c) the scarcity of teacher elicitations aimed at more elaborated learner responses may limit the development of academic discourse; and (d) groupwork may become a privileged environment for students to deploy and develop L2 interactional resources.
This chapter introduces multimodal Conversation Analysis (CA) as a research framework for CLIL classroom interaction. We begin by presenting key methodological principles of CA and discussing how CA has recently broadened its analytical focus to examine how modalities such as gestures and texts are used as resources for interaction. Following this, we review recent (multimodal) CA work that has investigated teaching and learning practices in classrooms involving second language users, such as in CLIL and immersion settings. To illustrate the described methodological orientation, we briefly analyse one video-recorded interaction and conclude by suggesting research areas related to CLIL classrooms that could benefit from a multimodal CA perspective.
This chapter explores the significance of metacognitive questions in primary CLIL classrooms in which teachers implement Assessment for Learning (AfL), a methodology which requires the teacher to help students assess learning gaps and work toward closing them (Black & Wiliam 1998a, 1998b; Black et al. 2003). We present illustrative data from a study comprising 9 AfL lessons belonging to a larger corpus. These sessions were analyzed qualitatively, focusing on extracts featuring metacognitive questions and how they affected teacher-student interaction. Using examples from the data, we show how metacognitive questions, as essential to an AfL approach, encourage students to reflect upon and verbalize their learning processes. Furthermore, they engage students in peer‑ and self-assessment, which also contributes to the awareness of learning gaps and prompts motivation to fill these gaps.
The L1’s role in the foreign language classroom has always been fraught with controversy due to the dominance of the target language only principle. This chapter analyses this issue by letting teachers have their say, sharing their teaching experiences and reflecting upon how they use the L1 and L2 in their CLIL classes. Three discussion groups were organised, as this method serves to capture and analyse ideological discourses and encourages participants to express their perspectives and unearth contradictions. Analysis of the results indicates that current practices are arbitrary and that most teachers make decisions based on their beliefs, teaching experience and intuition.
This chapter presents a reflexive approach to teacher identity in CLIL, which is structurally similar to the sociolinguistic approach to language acquisition (e.g., Norton 2013), replacing psychological concepts (e.g., motivation) with sociological ones (e.g., investment). Teacher professionalization is understood as a reflexive, biographically embedded process of identity construction that can be modelled using the concept of Bildung as a transformation of a teacher’s relation to him‑ or herself and to the (professional) world s/he is acting in (Bonnet & Hericks 2013). We use this theoretical framework to explore the state of the art of international CLIL teacher research. Findings from the literature will be complemented by data from an ongoing research project.
Over the last twenty years, English-medium education in tertiary settings has turned into a global reality, with higher education institutions (HEIs) across the world aiming to become increasingly international. Yet this apparently uniform move towards English-medium instruction comes in such a variety of highly diverse local realisations that, when looked at in detail, the homogenising function of English turns out to be more complex and multifaceted than initially expected (Smit & Dafouz 2012). Within this context, the chapter draws on a recently developed conceptual framework for describing English-medium education in multilingual university settings (or EMEMUS), known by the acronym ROAD-MAPPING (Dafouz & Smit 2016) and focuses specifically on one of the six core dimensions, namely Roles of English (in relation to other languages). With the help of illustrative discursive examples from two different HEIs, we contend that well-established notions (such as EFL, EAP, ESP and ELF) while useful for initial categorizations of English language usage, are, firstly, complex in themselves and, secondly, adopt predominantly linguistic perspectives, potentially sidelining other relevant societal, institutional, pedagogical and communicational factors.
The Interaction Hypothesis is one of the explanations for second language acquisition (SLA) (Hatch 1978; Long 1983). Numerous studies have shown that interaction facilitates SLA because learners have the opportunity to negotiate language input, receive feedback and modify their output (Long 1996; Pica 2013). However, there is little experimental research on interaction from this perspective in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) settings. The main goal of this chapter is to provide an overview of the main constructs of the interactionist framework and to see how they have been researched in studies that analyze the interlanguage of CLIL learners regarding their negotiation routines, attention to form and corrective feedback episodes.
One of the most decisive factors influencing the learning of a second or a foreign language (L2/FL) seems to be learner motivation. Studies into motivation and L2/FL learning abound, but studies specifically targeting the role of language learning motivation in CLIL are scarce. This chapter will further illuminate this relationship. The chapter accounts for the theoretical underpinnings of motivation research, primarily in the form of the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS; Dörnyei 2005, 2009), but also integrative and instrumental motivation (Gardner & Lambert 1959). Further, an overview of existing studies on motivation and CLIL is presented. The chapter ends with a discussion on the pedagogical implications of previous research and how to move forward with CLIL, language learning and motivation.
The study compares how three groups of learners at different educational levels in CLIL, post-CLIL and EFL classes modify their requests which were elicited by means of a written discourse completion task with two situations (different power relations). Data analysis is based on earlier request taxonomies (Alcón-Soler et al. 2005; Blum-Kulka et al. 1989), but the study also introduces new pragmatic features that appeared in the learners’ data. Qualitative and quantitative differences point to a duality in how learners use softening and aggravating request modifications, attributed to insufficient sociopragmatic knowledge. Among other finer results, the study shows that CLIL, as an educational approach, does not necessarily contribute to enhancing learners’ pragmatic competence if seen through the lens of making requests.
This chapter offers a perspective on texts written in a CLIL class, highlighting the role of the interpersonal meanings covered by the appraisal framework (Martin & White 2005) in constructing the different genres of history, which are not only factual, but also include assigning value and indicating point of view. An analysis of appraisal in an 11,000-word longitudinal corpus of CLIL secondary student writing shows how texts are more or less successful in their selection of features from the appraisal systems as they respond to prompts, the higher-rated texts creating a more appropriate voice for the genre (Coffin 2006). Awareness of the categories of interpersonal meanings can allow teachers to make genre expectations explicit, helping improve student writing.
This chapter focuses on the register variable of tenor within systemic functional linguistics (SFL) to examine spoken interaction involving secondary CLIL history learners in two contexts: one-to-one interviews with a researcher, and role-plays with peers. Tenor refers to the role relationship between interactants, and its impact on language use. We adapt speech function analyses developed by Eggins and Slade (1997) for ordinary conversation to settings in which CLIL learners jointly construct aspects of content knowledge in one subject, history. The findings show that the negotiation and roles assigned to participants impacted on the ways the learners managed to construct history content knowledge. We argue that speech function analysis can throw light on how role relationships in spoken interaction can create or restrict affordances for the expression of content knowledge in CLIL.
This chapter addresses the role of multimodal semiotic systems in teaching science through English as a second language. We argue that pedagogical concerns should focus on language and other semiotic choices that teachers use to scaffold their students’ learning. Through an investigation of the inter-relationship of different semiotic systems (modalities), we are able to develop models of best practice that can help inform teachers. We consider two broad educational contexts: one that is becoming more prevalent, where it may happen that English is neither the primary language for the students nor for the teachers, as in Hong Kong, and one that is commonplace in places, such as Australia, where there is a large proportion of students with English as an additional language studying in a country where English is the predominant language. We use video data from two secondary science classrooms in these two contexts to analyse how the teachers provide multiple access points to meaning and how they scaffold the learners into the disciplinary literacy of science.
This chapter problematizes the Classroom Interactional Competence (CIC) of learners and teachers working in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) contexts. Through Multimodal Conversation Analysis (CA), we consider how CIC is enacted in dialogues which focus on both subject content and English. Our analysis reveals that (a) teachers’ deployment of multimodal resources ensures comprehension and self-selection; (b) teachers’ questions and evaluative feedback may play a major role in guiding the students; (c) the scarcity of teacher elicitations aimed at more elaborated learner responses may limit the development of academic discourse; and (d) groupwork may become a privileged environment for students to deploy and develop L2 interactional resources.
This chapter introduces multimodal Conversation Analysis (CA) as a research framework for CLIL classroom interaction. We begin by presenting key methodological principles of CA and discussing how CA has recently broadened its analytical focus to examine how modalities such as gestures and texts are used as resources for interaction. Following this, we review recent (multimodal) CA work that has investigated teaching and learning practices in classrooms involving second language users, such as in CLIL and immersion settings. To illustrate the described methodological orientation, we briefly analyse one video-recorded interaction and conclude by suggesting research areas related to CLIL classrooms that could benefit from a multimodal CA perspective.
This chapter explores the significance of metacognitive questions in primary CLIL classrooms in which teachers implement Assessment for Learning (AfL), a methodology which requires the teacher to help students assess learning gaps and work toward closing them (Black & Wiliam 1998a, 1998b; Black et al. 2003). We present illustrative data from a study comprising 9 AfL lessons belonging to a larger corpus. These sessions were analyzed qualitatively, focusing on extracts featuring metacognitive questions and how they affected teacher-student interaction. Using examples from the data, we show how metacognitive questions, as essential to an AfL approach, encourage students to reflect upon and verbalize their learning processes. Furthermore, they engage students in peer‑ and self-assessment, which also contributes to the awareness of learning gaps and prompts motivation to fill these gaps.
The L1’s role in the foreign language classroom has always been fraught with controversy due to the dominance of the target language only principle. This chapter analyses this issue by letting teachers have their say, sharing their teaching experiences and reflecting upon how they use the L1 and L2 in their CLIL classes. Three discussion groups were organised, as this method serves to capture and analyse ideological discourses and encourages participants to express their perspectives and unearth contradictions. Analysis of the results indicates that current practices are arbitrary and that most teachers make decisions based on their beliefs, teaching experience and intuition.
This chapter presents a reflexive approach to teacher identity in CLIL, which is structurally similar to the sociolinguistic approach to language acquisition (e.g., Norton 2013), replacing psychological concepts (e.g., motivation) with sociological ones (e.g., investment). Teacher professionalization is understood as a reflexive, biographically embedded process of identity construction that can be modelled using the concept of Bildung as a transformation of a teacher’s relation to him‑ or herself and to the (professional) world s/he is acting in (Bonnet & Hericks 2013). We use this theoretical framework to explore the state of the art of international CLIL teacher research. Findings from the literature will be complemented by data from an ongoing research project.
Over the last twenty years, English-medium education in tertiary settings has turned into a global reality, with higher education institutions (HEIs) across the world aiming to become increasingly international. Yet this apparently uniform move towards English-medium instruction comes in such a variety of highly diverse local realisations that, when looked at in detail, the homogenising function of English turns out to be more complex and multifaceted than initially expected (Smit & Dafouz 2012). Within this context, the chapter draws on a recently developed conceptual framework for describing English-medium education in multilingual university settings (or EMEMUS), known by the acronym ROAD-MAPPING (Dafouz & Smit 2016) and focuses specifically on one of the six core dimensions, namely Roles of English (in relation to other languages). With the help of illustrative discursive examples from two different HEIs, we contend that well-established notions (such as EFL, EAP, ESP and ELF) while useful for initial categorizations of English language usage, are, firstly, complex in themselves and, secondly, adopt predominantly linguistic perspectives, potentially sidelining other relevant societal, institutional, pedagogical and communicational factors.
The Interaction Hypothesis is one of the explanations for second language acquisition (SLA) (Hatch 1978; Long 1983). Numerous studies have shown that interaction facilitates SLA because learners have the opportunity to negotiate language input, receive feedback and modify their output (Long 1996; Pica 2013). However, there is little experimental research on interaction from this perspective in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) settings. The main goal of this chapter is to provide an overview of the main constructs of the interactionist framework and to see how they have been researched in studies that analyze the interlanguage of CLIL learners regarding their negotiation routines, attention to form and corrective feedback episodes.
One of the most decisive factors influencing the learning of a second or a foreign language (L2/FL) seems to be learner motivation. Studies into motivation and L2/FL learning abound, but studies specifically targeting the role of language learning motivation in CLIL are scarce. This chapter will further illuminate this relationship. The chapter accounts for the theoretical underpinnings of motivation research, primarily in the form of the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS; Dörnyei 2005, 2009), but also integrative and instrumental motivation (Gardner & Lambert 1959). Further, an overview of existing studies on motivation and CLIL is presented. The chapter ends with a discussion on the pedagogical implications of previous research and how to move forward with CLIL, language learning and motivation.
The study compares how three groups of learners at different educational levels in CLIL, post-CLIL and EFL classes modify their requests which were elicited by means of a written discourse completion task with two situations (different power relations). Data analysis is based on earlier request taxonomies (Alcón-Soler et al. 2005; Blum-Kulka et al. 1989), but the study also introduces new pragmatic features that appeared in the learners’ data. Qualitative and quantitative differences point to a duality in how learners use softening and aggravating request modifications, attributed to insufficient sociopragmatic knowledge. Among other finer results, the study shows that CLIL, as an educational approach, does not necessarily contribute to enhancing learners’ pragmatic competence if seen through the lens of making requests.
This chapter offers a perspective on texts written in a CLIL class, highlighting the role of the interpersonal meanings covered by the appraisal framework (Martin & White 2005) in constructing the different genres of history, which are not only factual, but also include assigning value and indicating point of view. An analysis of appraisal in an 11,000-word longitudinal corpus of CLIL secondary student writing shows how texts are more or less successful in their selection of features from the appraisal systems as they respond to prompts, the higher-rated texts creating a more appropriate voice for the genre (Coffin 2006). Awareness of the categories of interpersonal meanings can allow teachers to make genre expectations explicit, helping improve student writing.
This chapter focuses on the register variable of tenor within systemic functional linguistics (SFL) to examine spoken interaction involving secondary CLIL history learners in two contexts: one-to-one interviews with a researcher, and role-plays with peers. Tenor refers to the role relationship between interactants, and its impact on language use. We adapt speech function analyses developed by Eggins and Slade (1997) for ordinary conversation to settings in which CLIL learners jointly construct aspects of content knowledge in one subject, history. The findings show that the negotiation and roles assigned to participants impacted on the ways the learners managed to construct history content knowledge. We argue that speech function analysis can throw light on how role relationships in spoken interaction can create or restrict affordances for the expression of content knowledge in CLIL.
This chapter addresses the role of multimodal semiotic systems in teaching science through English as a second language. We argue that pedagogical concerns should focus on language and other semiotic choices that teachers use to scaffold their students’ learning. Through an investigation of the inter-relationship of different semiotic systems (modalities), we are able to develop models of best practice that can help inform teachers. We consider two broad educational contexts: one that is becoming more prevalent, where it may happen that English is neither the primary language for the students nor for the teachers, as in Hong Kong, and one that is commonplace in places, such as Australia, where there is a large proportion of students with English as an additional language studying in a country where English is the predominant language. We use video data from two secondary science classrooms in these two contexts to analyse how the teachers provide multiple access points to meaning and how they scaffold the learners into the disciplinary literacy of science.
This chapter problematizes the Classroom Interactional Competence (CIC) of learners and teachers working in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) contexts. Through Multimodal Conversation Analysis (CA), we consider how CIC is enacted in dialogues which focus on both subject content and English. Our analysis reveals that (a) teachers’ deployment of multimodal resources ensures comprehension and self-selection; (b) teachers’ questions and evaluative feedback may play a major role in guiding the students; (c) the scarcity of teacher elicitations aimed at more elaborated learner responses may limit the development of academic discourse; and (d) groupwork may become a privileged environment for students to deploy and develop L2 interactional resources.
This chapter introduces multimodal Conversation Analysis (CA) as a research framework for CLIL classroom interaction. We begin by presenting key methodological principles of CA and discussing how CA has recently broadened its analytical focus to examine how modalities such as gestures and texts are used as resources for interaction. Following this, we review recent (multimodal) CA work that has investigated teaching and learning practices in classrooms involving second language users, such as in CLIL and immersion settings. To illustrate the described methodological orientation, we briefly analyse one video-recorded interaction and conclude by suggesting research areas related to CLIL classrooms that could benefit from a multimodal CA perspective.
This chapter explores the significance of metacognitive questions in primary CLIL classrooms in which teachers implement Assessment for Learning (AfL), a methodology which requires the teacher to help students assess learning gaps and work toward closing them (Black & Wiliam 1998a, 1998b; Black et al. 2003). We present illustrative data from a study comprising 9 AfL lessons belonging to a larger corpus. These sessions were analyzed qualitatively, focusing on extracts featuring metacognitive questions and how they affected teacher-student interaction. Using examples from the data, we show how metacognitive questions, as essential to an AfL approach, encourage students to reflect upon and verbalize their learning processes. Furthermore, they engage students in peer‑ and self-assessment, which also contributes to the awareness of learning gaps and prompts motivation to fill these gaps.
The L1’s role in the foreign language classroom has always been fraught with controversy due to the dominance of the target language only principle. This chapter analyses this issue by letting teachers have their say, sharing their teaching experiences and reflecting upon how they use the L1 and L2 in their CLIL classes. Three discussion groups were organised, as this method serves to capture and analyse ideological discourses and encourages participants to express their perspectives and unearth contradictions. Analysis of the results indicates that current practices are arbitrary and that most teachers make decisions based on their beliefs, teaching experience and intuition.
This chapter presents a reflexive approach to teacher identity in CLIL, which is structurally similar to the sociolinguistic approach to language acquisition (e.g., Norton 2013), replacing psychological concepts (e.g., motivation) with sociological ones (e.g., investment). Teacher professionalization is understood as a reflexive, biographically embedded process of identity construction that can be modelled using the concept of Bildung as a transformation of a teacher’s relation to him‑ or herself and to the (professional) world s/he is acting in (Bonnet & Hericks 2013). We use this theoretical framework to explore the state of the art of international CLIL teacher research. Findings from the literature will be complemented by data from an ongoing research project.
Over the last twenty years, English-medium education in tertiary settings has turned into a global reality, with higher education institutions (HEIs) across the world aiming to become increasingly international. Yet this apparently uniform move towards English-medium instruction comes in such a variety of highly diverse local realisations that, when looked at in detail, the homogenising function of English turns out to be more complex and multifaceted than initially expected (Smit & Dafouz 2012). Within this context, the chapter draws on a recently developed conceptual framework for describing English-medium education in multilingual university settings (or EMEMUS), known by the acronym ROAD-MAPPING (Dafouz & Smit 2016) and focuses specifically on one of the six core dimensions, namely Roles of English (in relation to other languages). With the help of illustrative discursive examples from two different HEIs, we contend that well-established notions (such as EFL, EAP, ESP and ELF) while useful for initial categorizations of English language usage, are, firstly, complex in themselves and, secondly, adopt predominantly linguistic perspectives, potentially sidelining other relevant societal, institutional, pedagogical and communicational factors.