168016513
03
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JB
John Benjamins Publishing Company
01
JB code
PALART 7 Eb
15
9789027262189
06
10.1075/palart.7
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2019027972
DG
002
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PALART
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2210-6480
Processability Approaches to Language Acquisition Research & Teaching
7
01
Widening Contexts for Processability Theory
Theories and issues
01
palart.7
01
https://benjamins.com
02
https://benjamins.com/catalog/palart.7
1
B01
Anke Lenzing
Lenzing, Anke
Anke
Lenzing
Paderborn University
2
B01
Howard Nicholas
Nicholas, Howard
Howard
Nicholas
La Trobe University
3
B01
Jana Roos
Roos, Jana
Jana
Roos
Potsdam University
01
eng
414
ix
404
LAN009000
v.2006
CFD
2
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.LA
Language acquisition
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.PSYLIN
Psycholinguistics
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.THEOR
Theoretical linguistics
06
01
This book explores relationships between Processability Theory approaches and other approaches to SLA. It is distinctive in two ways. It offers PT-insiders a way to see connections between their familiar traditions and theories with other ways of working. Parallel to this it offers readers who work in other traditions ways of connecting with a research tradition that makes specific testable claims about second language acquisition processes. These dual perspectives mean that both beginning and established SLA researchers as well as those seeking to connect their work with views of language learning will find something of interest. Studies of multiple languages and multiple aspects of language are included. Chapters cover areas as diverse as literacy, language comprehension, language attrition and language testing.
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Miscellaneous
1
01
Acknowledgements
10
01
JB code
palart.7.01len
1
8
8
Chapter
2
01
Chapter 1. Contextualising issues in Processability Theory
1
A01
Anke Lenzing
Lenzing, Anke
Anke
Lenzing
Paderborn University
2
A01
Howard Nicholas
Nicholas, Howard
Howard
Nicholas
La Trobe University
3
A01
Jana Roos
Roos, Jana
Jana
Roos
Potsdam University
10
01
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palart.7.p1
9
101
93
Section header
3
01
Section 1. Language production and comprehension processes
10
01
JB code
palart.7.02len
13
48
36
Chapter
4
01
Chapter 2. Towards an integrated model of grammatical encoding and decoding in SLA
1
A01
Anke Lenzing
Lenzing, Anke
Anke
Lenzing
Paderborn University
01
In this chapter, I consider the interface between production and comprehension in second language acquisition (SLA). I argue that the two processes rely on (partially) shared resources and propose an integrated encoding-decoding model of SLA. The core of the model is a single syntactic processor underlying both second language (L2) grammatical encoding and decoding. The model also includes a means of accounting for the interaction of shared grammatical resources and key semantic aspects such as lexical semantics and event probability on the comprehension process. My claims are tested in an empirical study focussing on the L2 acquisition of English passive constructions by 24 learners with an L1 German background at different stages of L2 acquisition. The results of the data analysis provide support for the notion of a single syntactic processor in L2 acquisition.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.03spi
49
72
24
Chapter
5
01
Chapter 3. Productive and receptive processes in PT
1
A01
Patti Spinner
Spinner, Patti
Patti
Spinner
Michigan State University
2
A01
Sehoon Jung
Jung, Sehoon
Sehoon
Jung
Hankuk University of Foreign Studies
01
In this study, we investigate whether Processability Theory (Pienemann, 1998, 2005) accounts for reception data, and whether productive and receptive processing routines emerge simultaneously. Sixty-one learners of English as a second language (ESL learners) participate in an oral interview and self-paced reading (SPR) task targeting five stages of PT. Two analyses are performed: Implicational scaling and a comparison of individuals’ performance on the oral interview versus the SPR. The implicational table demonstrates that the SPR data do not clearly reflect the PT order, and the comparison data demonstrate that individuals’ performance on the oral production task does not match their performance on the SPR task. The results suggest that PT as currently formulated may not account for receptive data, and that productive and receptive processes may not always emerge simultaneously.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.04buy
73
102
30
Chapter
6
01
Chapter 4. Is morpho-syntactic decoding governed by Processability Theory?
1
A01
Aafke Buyl
Buyl, Aafke
Aafke
Buyl
Free University Brussels
01
This study focuses on the comprehension of English morphological features by adult learners of English based in Belgium. I explore the relationship between their receptive grammatical processing and identified stages of the emergence of productive capacities using the Processability Theory framework. I problematise the notion of emergence in receptive grammatical processing, including recognising the additional challenges of chance performance. I explore the effects of using different acquisition criteria for the same data comparing the learners’ performance across multiple morphological features in relation to PTs proposed developmental stages. I find no developmental systematicity on any of the measures. The implications of these findings are discussed.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.p2
103
153
51
Section header
7
01
Section 2. Language acquisition features across typological boundaries
10
01
JB code
palart.7.05art
105
130
26
Chapter
8
01
Chapter 5. Case within the phrasal procedure stage
Sequences of acquisition in Russian L2
1
A01
Daniele Artoni
Artoni, Daniele
Daniele
Artoni
University of Verona
01
This chapter investigates the acquisition of case in Russian L2 within the VP and the PP, two structures belonging to the same Processability Theory (PT)-based stage of acquisition, namely the Phrasal procedure stage. I claim that a crucial aspect of the intra-stage development is determined by the different nature of case assignments involved in the given structures. The study is conducted with a group of 15 learners of Russian L2 with varied L1 backgrounds. The analysis of their semi-spontaneous speech shows that (1) case within the VP develops from lack of case assignment to configurational, lexical, and eventually grammatical assignment, and (2) case within the PP develops from lack of case assignment to configurational and lexical case assignments. To conclude, the study confirms the cross-linguistic prediction that case develops from no marking to case assignment by position, and eventually to grammatical case assignment.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.06mag
131
154
24
Chapter
9
01
Chapter 6. Developing morpho-syntax in non-configurational languages
A comparison between Russian L2 and Italian L2
1
A01
Marco Magnani
Magnani, Marco
Marco
Magnani
University of Verona
01
Within the Processability Theory (PT) framework, the Topic Hypothesis (Pienemann et al., 2005) and its recent reformulation as the Prominence Hypothesis (Bettoni & Di Biase, 2015) have contributed substantially to explaining syntactic development in non-configurational languages, adding an important discourse-pragmatic component. However, the role of morphological development cannot be ignored, because in this type of languages it is morphology that constructs syntactic relations (Nordlinger, 1998). This chapter will look at syntactic development by attempting to incorporate both morphological and discourse-pragmatic factors in a way that is consistent with the predictions of PT’s Prominence Hypothesis. Specifically, I will look at the development of morpho-syntax in Russian L2 and Italian L2 – two languages located towards the less configurational end of the typological spectrum, the former more dependent-marking, the latter more head-marking.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.p3
155
282
128
Section header
10
01
Section 3. Language use and developmental trajectories
10
01
JB code
palart.7.07nic
157
184
28
Chapter
11
01
Chapter 7. Using the Multiplicity framework to reposition and reframe the Hypothesis Space
1
A01
Howard Nicholas
Nicholas, Howard
Howard
Nicholas
2
A01
Donna Starks
Starks, Donna
Donna
Starks
01
In this chapter we explore how the Multiplicity framework of the communicative repertoire offers ways to expand understandings of Hypothesis Space and widens insights into the process of second language acquisition currently offered by PT. We focus on the potential of the Multiplicity framework for capturing and explaining variation in learners’ communicative acts that occur in response to varied pressures in moments of communication. We suggest that these insights offer a different means of connecting the Hypothesis Space with learners’ acquisition trajectories. seek to embrace both the concept of shared developmental stages that has been the centrepiece of PT to date and relate features of development to variation within moments of interaction.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.08hje
185
206
22
Chapter
12
01
Chapter 8. Processability Theory as a tool in the study of a heritage speaker of Norwegian
1
A01
Arnstein Hjelde
Hjelde, Arnstein
Arnstein
Hjelde
Østfold University College
2
A01
Bjørn Harald Kvifte
Kvifte, Bjørn Harald
Bjørn Harald
Kvifte
Østfold University College
3
A01
Linda Evenstad Emilsen
Emilsen, Linda Evenstad
Linda Evenstad
Emilsen
Østfold University College
4
A01
Ragnar Arntzen
Arntzen, Ragnar
Ragnar
Arntzen
Østfold University College
01
In this article, we employ aspects of Processability Theory (PT) to study the language of one fourth generation heritage speaker of Norwegian in America. This man, who we refer to as Lars, was almost 50 years old when we first met and recorded him in 2010, and to our knowledge he is among the youngest Norwegian-Americans still able to speak Norwegian as a heritage language in the Upper Midwest. His dominant language was Norwegian until he started school, when English took over this role. When we met him the first time, he had not spoken Norwegian to any substantial extent for several decades.
<br />When we examine his language, we find a number of grammatical deviations from the baseline – the language as spoken in the old world, and we discuss the possible explanations for these; are they related to the quality of the input, are they due to attrition or are they the result of incomplete acquisition? In the discussion, we include certain aspects of PT, and based on this, we claim that attrition is the most likely explanation for the reduced structures in Lars’ Norwegian.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.09zha
207
230
24
Chapter
13
01
Chapter 9. Discourse-pragmatic conditions for Object topicalisation structures in early L2 Chinese
1
A01
Yanyin Zhang
Zhang, Yanyin
Yanyin
Zhang
01
In this chapter, I explore the connection between language processing and discourse-pragmatic factors in the L2 acquisition of three (Mandarin) Chinese Object topicalisation structures. Processability Theory (Pienemann, 1998, 2005) and Information Structure Theory (Lambrecht, 1994) are employed to investigate when the required processing procedures are in place in the learners’ L2 Chinese, what facilitates the learners’ discourse-pragmatic interpretation of the communicative context such that among various structural possibilities, they choose the non-canonical Object topicalisation structures. Two longitudinal studies of 6 <i>ab-initio</i> L2 learners of Chinese in two learning environments were examined. The findings show three types of discourse contexts to be particularly conducive for the production of the Object topicalisation structures: (1) Question and Answer (Q&A) sequences; (2) the presence of a local inanimate topic (an inanimate NP being the sentence topic at a particular point of a conversation); and (3) the ‘disposal’ situation. The study enhances our understanding of the discourse-pragmatic conditions that motivate and trigger L2 structural choices under the general constraints of processability.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.10not
231
254
24
Chapter
14
01
Chapter 10. Modelling relative clauses in Processability Theory and Lexical-Functional Grammar
1
A01
Emilia Nottbeck
Nottbeck, Emilia
Emilia
Nottbeck
Paderborn University
01
This chapter formally analyses English relative clause (RC) constructions within the framework of Processability Theory (PT) (Pienemann, 1998, 2005) using the grammatical formalism of Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG) (Bresnan, 2001) as an analytical tool. A theoretical account of (a) the classification of RCs in terms of the PT hierarchy of processing procedures and (b) a processing hierarchy of different types of RCs is provided that is based on the linear and non-linear mapping processes between c- and f-structure. This approach is extended by the discussion of the syntactic role of the head noun phrase (NP<sub>head</sub>) in the matrix clause considering general assumptions about working memory (Kuno, 1974) and the grammatical memory store (Levelt, 1989).
10
01
JB code
palart.7.11kaw
255
282
28
Chapter
15
01
Chapter 11. Early development and relative clause constructions in English as a second language
A longitudinal study
1
A01
Satomi Kawaguchi
Kawaguchi, Satomi
Satomi
Kawaguchi
Western Sydney University
2
A01
Yumiko Yamaguchi
Yamaguchi, Yumiko
Yumiko
Yamaguchi
Tokai University
01
This study examines the development of relative clause (RC) constructions in a child learning English as a second language in a naturalistic environment. Processability Theory (PT) (Pienemann, 1998, 2005; Pienemann & Kessler, 2011) does not treat RCs, hence the present study looks at four major approaches to RC development and attempts to find points of convergence with PT’s developmental stages. In order to trace RCs’ development empirically, we audio-recorded at regular intervals the spontaneous and elicited speech production of a Japanese child learning English from age 5;08 to age 7;08. Our study found that infinitival and participial RC constructions, such as those considered by Diessel (2004) as building blocks for RC development in FLA, also emerge early in child ESL.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.p4
283
398
116
Section header
16
01
Section 4. Language learning and teaching issues in relation to classroom and assessment contexts
10
01
JB code
palart.7.12roo
285
300
16
Chapter
17
01
Chapter 12. Exploiting the potential of tasks for targeted language learning in the EFL classroom
1
A01
Jana Roos
Roos, Jana
Jana
Roos
01
This chapter reports on a classroom study showing how communicative tasks that include a focus on the developmental readiness of the learners promote the acquisition process. The study explores the effects of the use of such tasks with young German learners of English. It is based on the idea that a positive effect on language development is possible using an approach that engages learners in the active use of grammatical features for which they are developmentally ready. The study focuses on the acquisition of ‘third person singular ‑<i>s</i>’. In a pretest, a number of the learners involved had shown that they were developmentally ready for this feature. After an instruction period that included work with communicative tasks focussing on this feature, oral speech production data were obtained through task-based interaction in a posttest and a delayed posttest. The data indicate that providing learners with these kinds of opportunities to use a ‘learnable’ feature repeatedly and flexibly promotes the acquisition of that feature.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.13bat
301
326
26
Chapter
18
01
Chapter 13. Teaching the German case system
A comparison of two approaches to the study of learner readiness
1
A01
Kristof Baten
Baten, Kristof
Kristof
Baten
Ghent University / Research Foundation Flanders (FWO), Belgium
01
This chapter compares two different approaches to the construct ‘readiness’: namely, processing constraints as defined by Processability Theory and the Teachability Hypothesis (Pienemann, 1998) and partial mastery as defined in the research on Focus on Form (Williams & Evans, 1998). The former operationalises readiness through the emergence criterion, the latter employs an accuracy criterion. The chapter applies both definitions and operationalisations in the context of a study investigating the effectiveness of instruction on the acquisition of the German case system by Dutch-speaking foreign language learners. The study included 18 freshman university students of German and adopted a quasi-experimental pretest/posttest design. The instructional treatment involved a meaning-focussed activity which eventually led to explicit rule presentation. Oral language production data was collected by means of a picture description task and an elicited imitation task. The results show that the (non-)emergence of the developmental stages of the German case marking system stayed within the predictive boundaries of the Teachability Hypothesis, whereas the development of the accuracy scores did not reveal any observable sequence. However, the results reveal that the two (emergence and accuracy) are related to the extent that increases in accuracy scores are only possible if a stage is reached or reachable. The findings suggest that the systematic, implicational emergence of stages and the subsequent, variable increases in accuracy scores represent two different, but complementing, aspects of L2 development.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.14li
327
348
22
Chapter
19
01
Chapter 14. Development of English question formation in the EFL context of China
Recasts or prompts?
1
A01
Huifang (Lydia) Li
Li, Huifang (Lydia)
Huifang (Lydia)
Li
University of New England
2
A01
Noriko Iwashita
Iwashita, Noriko
Noriko
Iwashita
University of Queensland
01
This experimental classroom study investigates the effects of two feedback types on English question formation. Ninety Chinese learners were randomly assigned to either one of two experimental groups (recasts or prompts) or the control group. Between the pre- and posttests, the learners in the experimental groups received the assigned type of feedback that addressed their production of questions during task-based interaction. The effects of the feedback were measured by calculating whether there was an increase in production frequency of targeted question types. The results showed that (1) neither feedback type was effective in increasing the learners’ production of Stage-5 questions, and (2) both feedback types were valuable in improving the learners’ production of accurate questions, but recasts yielded a larger effect than prompts. These findings provide further evidence of feedback usefulness in L2 learning and shed light on English question formation via the pedagogical tool of corrective feedback.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.15ste
349
370
22
Chapter
20
01
Chapter 15. Can print literacy impact upon learning to speak Standard Australian English?
1
A01
Carly Steele
Steele, Carly
Carly
Steele
Curtin University
2
A01
Rhonda Oliver
Oliver, Rhonda
Rhonda
Oliver
Curtin University
01
Second language learning research mostly investigates literate learners. Based on studies by Tarone, Bigelow and colleagues (2004, 2005, 2006, 2006) this small scale study focuses on low level literacy learners who are acquiring Standard Australian English as their second dialect. It explores whether literacy levels impact upon the processing of language when engaging in oral interaction tasks. Utilising Pienemann’s (1998, 2005) stages of question formation, feedback given to the learners targeted questions within the learners’ developmental stage. Participants were asked to identify whether the language used differed from their own, and if so, to attempt to reproduce it. The findings show that feedback was often noticed, but no significant relationship was found between literacy level and noticing. However, there was a significant relationship between literacy level and the reproduction of targeted forms. This study, like the others contained within this section, is concerned with the developmental readiness of second language learners to acquire target forms and the approach is closely aligned with that of Li and Iwashita (this volume). However, it does differ in that its participants are learners of a second dialect with low literacy levels, representing an under-studied population.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.16hei
371
390
20
Chapter
21
01
Chapter 16. The role of grammatical development in oral assessment
1
A01
Maria Eklund Heinonen
Heinonen, Maria Eklund
Maria Eklund
Heinonen
Södertörn University
01
Tests today are usually based on a communicative view of language, with less focus on grammar. In this chapter, a study is presented that investigates whether there is a difference in terms of grammatical development between a group of test-takers who passed and a group who failed an oral language test. The study addresses theories of SLA and language testing, i.e., Processability Theory and the model of Communicative Language Ability, the construct of the test. Data from learners’ test performances were analysed using PT in order to see whether there was a consistent relationship between the PT stage analysis and the results derived from the test. The comparison shows a clear difference between the test-takers who passed and those who failed in terms of grammatical development. This implies a correlation between grammatical development and communicative competence in general which may indicate that PT constitutes a useful basis for oral assessment.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.17nic
391
398
8
Chapter
22
01
Chapter 17. How does PT’s view of acquisition relate to the challenge of widening perspectives on SLA?
1
A01
Howard Nicholas
Nicholas, Howard
Howard
Nicholas
La Trobe University
2
A01
Anke Lenzing
Lenzing, Anke
Anke
Lenzing
Paderborn University
3
A01
Jana Roos
Roos, Jana
Jana
Roos
Potsdam University
10
01
JB code
palart.7.ind
399
404
6
Miscellaneous
23
01
Index
02
JBENJAMINS
John Benjamins Publishing Company
01
John Benjamins Publishing Company
Amsterdam/Philadelphia
NL
04
20191128
2019
John Benjamins B.V.
02
WORLD
13
15
9789027203984
01
JB
3
John Benjamins e-Platform
03
jbe-platform.com
09
WORLD
21
01
00
99.00
EUR
R
01
00
83.00
GBP
Z
01
gen
00
149.00
USD
S
472016512
03
01
01
JB
John Benjamins Publishing Company
01
JB code
PALART 7 Hb
15
9789027203984
13
2019027971
BB
01
PALART
02
2210-6480
Processability Approaches to Language Acquisition Research & Teaching
7
01
Widening Contexts for Processability Theory
Theories and issues
01
palart.7
01
https://benjamins.com
02
https://benjamins.com/catalog/palart.7
1
B01
Anke Lenzing
Lenzing, Anke
Anke
Lenzing
Paderborn University
2
B01
Howard Nicholas
Nicholas, Howard
Howard
Nicholas
La Trobe University
3
B01
Jana Roos
Roos, Jana
Jana
Roos
Potsdam University
01
eng
414
ix
404
LAN009000
v.2006
CFD
2
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.LA
Language acquisition
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.PSYLIN
Psycholinguistics
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.THEOR
Theoretical linguistics
06
01
This book explores relationships between Processability Theory approaches and other approaches to SLA. It is distinctive in two ways. It offers PT-insiders a way to see connections between their familiar traditions and theories with other ways of working. Parallel to this it offers readers who work in other traditions ways of connecting with a research tradition that makes specific testable claims about second language acquisition processes. These dual perspectives mean that both beginning and established SLA researchers as well as those seeking to connect their work with views of language learning will find something of interest. Studies of multiple languages and multiple aspects of language are included. Chapters cover areas as diverse as literacy, language comprehension, language attrition and language testing.
04
09
01
https://benjamins.com/covers/475/palart.7.png
04
03
01
https://benjamins.com/covers/475_jpg/9789027203984.jpg
04
03
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https://benjamins.com/covers/475_tif/9789027203984.tif
06
09
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https://benjamins.com/covers/1200_front/palart.7.hb.png
07
09
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https://benjamins.com/covers/125/palart.7.png
25
09
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27
09
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https://benjamins.com/covers/3d_web/palart.7.hb.png
10
01
JB code
palart.7.ack
ix
x
2
Miscellaneous
1
01
Acknowledgements
10
01
JB code
palart.7.01len
1
8
8
Chapter
2
01
Chapter 1. Contextualising issues in Processability Theory
1
A01
Anke Lenzing
Lenzing, Anke
Anke
Lenzing
Paderborn University
2
A01
Howard Nicholas
Nicholas, Howard
Howard
Nicholas
La Trobe University
3
A01
Jana Roos
Roos, Jana
Jana
Roos
Potsdam University
10
01
JB code
palart.7.p1
9
101
93
Section header
3
01
Section 1. Language production and comprehension processes
10
01
JB code
palart.7.02len
13
48
36
Chapter
4
01
Chapter 2. Towards an integrated model of grammatical encoding and decoding in SLA
1
A01
Anke Lenzing
Lenzing, Anke
Anke
Lenzing
Paderborn University
01
In this chapter, I consider the interface between production and comprehension in second language acquisition (SLA). I argue that the two processes rely on (partially) shared resources and propose an integrated encoding-decoding model of SLA. The core of the model is a single syntactic processor underlying both second language (L2) grammatical encoding and decoding. The model also includes a means of accounting for the interaction of shared grammatical resources and key semantic aspects such as lexical semantics and event probability on the comprehension process. My claims are tested in an empirical study focussing on the L2 acquisition of English passive constructions by 24 learners with an L1 German background at different stages of L2 acquisition. The results of the data analysis provide support for the notion of a single syntactic processor in L2 acquisition.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.03spi
49
72
24
Chapter
5
01
Chapter 3. Productive and receptive processes in PT
1
A01
Patti Spinner
Spinner, Patti
Patti
Spinner
Michigan State University
2
A01
Sehoon Jung
Jung, Sehoon
Sehoon
Jung
Hankuk University of Foreign Studies
01
In this study, we investigate whether Processability Theory (Pienemann, 1998, 2005) accounts for reception data, and whether productive and receptive processing routines emerge simultaneously. Sixty-one learners of English as a second language (ESL learners) participate in an oral interview and self-paced reading (SPR) task targeting five stages of PT. Two analyses are performed: Implicational scaling and a comparison of individuals’ performance on the oral interview versus the SPR. The implicational table demonstrates that the SPR data do not clearly reflect the PT order, and the comparison data demonstrate that individuals’ performance on the oral production task does not match their performance on the SPR task. The results suggest that PT as currently formulated may not account for receptive data, and that productive and receptive processes may not always emerge simultaneously.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.04buy
73
102
30
Chapter
6
01
Chapter 4. Is morpho-syntactic decoding governed by Processability Theory?
1
A01
Aafke Buyl
Buyl, Aafke
Aafke
Buyl
Free University Brussels
01
This study focuses on the comprehension of English morphological features by adult learners of English based in Belgium. I explore the relationship between their receptive grammatical processing and identified stages of the emergence of productive capacities using the Processability Theory framework. I problematise the notion of emergence in receptive grammatical processing, including recognising the additional challenges of chance performance. I explore the effects of using different acquisition criteria for the same data comparing the learners’ performance across multiple morphological features in relation to PTs proposed developmental stages. I find no developmental systematicity on any of the measures. The implications of these findings are discussed.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.p2
103
153
51
Section header
7
01
Section 2. Language acquisition features across typological boundaries
10
01
JB code
palart.7.05art
105
130
26
Chapter
8
01
Chapter 5. Case within the phrasal procedure stage
Sequences of acquisition in Russian L2
1
A01
Daniele Artoni
Artoni, Daniele
Daniele
Artoni
University of Verona
01
This chapter investigates the acquisition of case in Russian L2 within the VP and the PP, two structures belonging to the same Processability Theory (PT)-based stage of acquisition, namely the Phrasal procedure stage. I claim that a crucial aspect of the intra-stage development is determined by the different nature of case assignments involved in the given structures. The study is conducted with a group of 15 learners of Russian L2 with varied L1 backgrounds. The analysis of their semi-spontaneous speech shows that (1) case within the VP develops from lack of case assignment to configurational, lexical, and eventually grammatical assignment, and (2) case within the PP develops from lack of case assignment to configurational and lexical case assignments. To conclude, the study confirms the cross-linguistic prediction that case develops from no marking to case assignment by position, and eventually to grammatical case assignment.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.06mag
131
154
24
Chapter
9
01
Chapter 6. Developing morpho-syntax in non-configurational languages
A comparison between Russian L2 and Italian L2
1
A01
Marco Magnani
Magnani, Marco
Marco
Magnani
University of Verona
01
Within the Processability Theory (PT) framework, the Topic Hypothesis (Pienemann et al., 2005) and its recent reformulation as the Prominence Hypothesis (Bettoni & Di Biase, 2015) have contributed substantially to explaining syntactic development in non-configurational languages, adding an important discourse-pragmatic component. However, the role of morphological development cannot be ignored, because in this type of languages it is morphology that constructs syntactic relations (Nordlinger, 1998). This chapter will look at syntactic development by attempting to incorporate both morphological and discourse-pragmatic factors in a way that is consistent with the predictions of PT’s Prominence Hypothesis. Specifically, I will look at the development of morpho-syntax in Russian L2 and Italian L2 – two languages located towards the less configurational end of the typological spectrum, the former more dependent-marking, the latter more head-marking.
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01
JB code
palart.7.p3
155
282
128
Section header
10
01
Section 3. Language use and developmental trajectories
10
01
JB code
palart.7.07nic
157
184
28
Chapter
11
01
Chapter 7. Using the Multiplicity framework to reposition and reframe the Hypothesis Space
1
A01
Howard Nicholas
Nicholas, Howard
Howard
Nicholas
2
A01
Donna Starks
Starks, Donna
Donna
Starks
01
In this chapter we explore how the Multiplicity framework of the communicative repertoire offers ways to expand understandings of Hypothesis Space and widens insights into the process of second language acquisition currently offered by PT. We focus on the potential of the Multiplicity framework for capturing and explaining variation in learners’ communicative acts that occur in response to varied pressures in moments of communication. We suggest that these insights offer a different means of connecting the Hypothesis Space with learners’ acquisition trajectories. seek to embrace both the concept of shared developmental stages that has been the centrepiece of PT to date and relate features of development to variation within moments of interaction.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.08hje
185
206
22
Chapter
12
01
Chapter 8. Processability Theory as a tool in the study of a heritage speaker of Norwegian
1
A01
Arnstein Hjelde
Hjelde, Arnstein
Arnstein
Hjelde
Østfold University College
2
A01
Bjørn Harald Kvifte
Kvifte, Bjørn Harald
Bjørn Harald
Kvifte
Østfold University College
3
A01
Linda Evenstad Emilsen
Emilsen, Linda Evenstad
Linda Evenstad
Emilsen
Østfold University College
4
A01
Ragnar Arntzen
Arntzen, Ragnar
Ragnar
Arntzen
Østfold University College
01
In this article, we employ aspects of Processability Theory (PT) to study the language of one fourth generation heritage speaker of Norwegian in America. This man, who we refer to as Lars, was almost 50 years old when we first met and recorded him in 2010, and to our knowledge he is among the youngest Norwegian-Americans still able to speak Norwegian as a heritage language in the Upper Midwest. His dominant language was Norwegian until he started school, when English took over this role. When we met him the first time, he had not spoken Norwegian to any substantial extent for several decades.
<br />When we examine his language, we find a number of grammatical deviations from the baseline – the language as spoken in the old world, and we discuss the possible explanations for these; are they related to the quality of the input, are they due to attrition or are they the result of incomplete acquisition? In the discussion, we include certain aspects of PT, and based on this, we claim that attrition is the most likely explanation for the reduced structures in Lars’ Norwegian.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.09zha
207
230
24
Chapter
13
01
Chapter 9. Discourse-pragmatic conditions for Object topicalisation structures in early L2 Chinese
1
A01
Yanyin Zhang
Zhang, Yanyin
Yanyin
Zhang
01
In this chapter, I explore the connection between language processing and discourse-pragmatic factors in the L2 acquisition of three (Mandarin) Chinese Object topicalisation structures. Processability Theory (Pienemann, 1998, 2005) and Information Structure Theory (Lambrecht, 1994) are employed to investigate when the required processing procedures are in place in the learners’ L2 Chinese, what facilitates the learners’ discourse-pragmatic interpretation of the communicative context such that among various structural possibilities, they choose the non-canonical Object topicalisation structures. Two longitudinal studies of 6 <i>ab-initio</i> L2 learners of Chinese in two learning environments were examined. The findings show three types of discourse contexts to be particularly conducive for the production of the Object topicalisation structures: (1) Question and Answer (Q&A) sequences; (2) the presence of a local inanimate topic (an inanimate NP being the sentence topic at a particular point of a conversation); and (3) the ‘disposal’ situation. The study enhances our understanding of the discourse-pragmatic conditions that motivate and trigger L2 structural choices under the general constraints of processability.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.10not
231
254
24
Chapter
14
01
Chapter 10. Modelling relative clauses in Processability Theory and Lexical-Functional Grammar
1
A01
Emilia Nottbeck
Nottbeck, Emilia
Emilia
Nottbeck
Paderborn University
01
This chapter formally analyses English relative clause (RC) constructions within the framework of Processability Theory (PT) (Pienemann, 1998, 2005) using the grammatical formalism of Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG) (Bresnan, 2001) as an analytical tool. A theoretical account of (a) the classification of RCs in terms of the PT hierarchy of processing procedures and (b) a processing hierarchy of different types of RCs is provided that is based on the linear and non-linear mapping processes between c- and f-structure. This approach is extended by the discussion of the syntactic role of the head noun phrase (NP<sub>head</sub>) in the matrix clause considering general assumptions about working memory (Kuno, 1974) and the grammatical memory store (Levelt, 1989).
10
01
JB code
palart.7.11kaw
255
282
28
Chapter
15
01
Chapter 11. Early development and relative clause constructions in English as a second language
A longitudinal study
1
A01
Satomi Kawaguchi
Kawaguchi, Satomi
Satomi
Kawaguchi
Western Sydney University
2
A01
Yumiko Yamaguchi
Yamaguchi, Yumiko
Yumiko
Yamaguchi
Tokai University
01
This study examines the development of relative clause (RC) constructions in a child learning English as a second language in a naturalistic environment. Processability Theory (PT) (Pienemann, 1998, 2005; Pienemann & Kessler, 2011) does not treat RCs, hence the present study looks at four major approaches to RC development and attempts to find points of convergence with PT’s developmental stages. In order to trace RCs’ development empirically, we audio-recorded at regular intervals the spontaneous and elicited speech production of a Japanese child learning English from age 5;08 to age 7;08. Our study found that infinitival and participial RC constructions, such as those considered by Diessel (2004) as building blocks for RC development in FLA, also emerge early in child ESL.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.p4
283
398
116
Section header
16
01
Section 4. Language learning and teaching issues in relation to classroom and assessment contexts
10
01
JB code
palart.7.12roo
285
300
16
Chapter
17
01
Chapter 12. Exploiting the potential of tasks for targeted language learning in the EFL classroom
1
A01
Jana Roos
Roos, Jana
Jana
Roos
01
This chapter reports on a classroom study showing how communicative tasks that include a focus on the developmental readiness of the learners promote the acquisition process. The study explores the effects of the use of such tasks with young German learners of English. It is based on the idea that a positive effect on language development is possible using an approach that engages learners in the active use of grammatical features for which they are developmentally ready. The study focuses on the acquisition of ‘third person singular ‑<i>s</i>’. In a pretest, a number of the learners involved had shown that they were developmentally ready for this feature. After an instruction period that included work with communicative tasks focussing on this feature, oral speech production data were obtained through task-based interaction in a posttest and a delayed posttest. The data indicate that providing learners with these kinds of opportunities to use a ‘learnable’ feature repeatedly and flexibly promotes the acquisition of that feature.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.13bat
301
326
26
Chapter
18
01
Chapter 13. Teaching the German case system
A comparison of two approaches to the study of learner readiness
1
A01
Kristof Baten
Baten, Kristof
Kristof
Baten
Ghent University / Research Foundation Flanders (FWO), Belgium
01
This chapter compares two different approaches to the construct ‘readiness’: namely, processing constraints as defined by Processability Theory and the Teachability Hypothesis (Pienemann, 1998) and partial mastery as defined in the research on Focus on Form (Williams & Evans, 1998). The former operationalises readiness through the emergence criterion, the latter employs an accuracy criterion. The chapter applies both definitions and operationalisations in the context of a study investigating the effectiveness of instruction on the acquisition of the German case system by Dutch-speaking foreign language learners. The study included 18 freshman university students of German and adopted a quasi-experimental pretest/posttest design. The instructional treatment involved a meaning-focussed activity which eventually led to explicit rule presentation. Oral language production data was collected by means of a picture description task and an elicited imitation task. The results show that the (non-)emergence of the developmental stages of the German case marking system stayed within the predictive boundaries of the Teachability Hypothesis, whereas the development of the accuracy scores did not reveal any observable sequence. However, the results reveal that the two (emergence and accuracy) are related to the extent that increases in accuracy scores are only possible if a stage is reached or reachable. The findings suggest that the systematic, implicational emergence of stages and the subsequent, variable increases in accuracy scores represent two different, but complementing, aspects of L2 development.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.14li
327
348
22
Chapter
19
01
Chapter 14. Development of English question formation in the EFL context of China
Recasts or prompts?
1
A01
Huifang (Lydia) Li
Li, Huifang (Lydia)
Huifang (Lydia)
Li
University of New England
2
A01
Noriko Iwashita
Iwashita, Noriko
Noriko
Iwashita
University of Queensland
01
This experimental classroom study investigates the effects of two feedback types on English question formation. Ninety Chinese learners were randomly assigned to either one of two experimental groups (recasts or prompts) or the control group. Between the pre- and posttests, the learners in the experimental groups received the assigned type of feedback that addressed their production of questions during task-based interaction. The effects of the feedback were measured by calculating whether there was an increase in production frequency of targeted question types. The results showed that (1) neither feedback type was effective in increasing the learners’ production of Stage-5 questions, and (2) both feedback types were valuable in improving the learners’ production of accurate questions, but recasts yielded a larger effect than prompts. These findings provide further evidence of feedback usefulness in L2 learning and shed light on English question formation via the pedagogical tool of corrective feedback.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.15ste
349
370
22
Chapter
20
01
Chapter 15. Can print literacy impact upon learning to speak Standard Australian English?
1
A01
Carly Steele
Steele, Carly
Carly
Steele
Curtin University
2
A01
Rhonda Oliver
Oliver, Rhonda
Rhonda
Oliver
Curtin University
01
Second language learning research mostly investigates literate learners. Based on studies by Tarone, Bigelow and colleagues (2004, 2005, 2006, 2006) this small scale study focuses on low level literacy learners who are acquiring Standard Australian English as their second dialect. It explores whether literacy levels impact upon the processing of language when engaging in oral interaction tasks. Utilising Pienemann’s (1998, 2005) stages of question formation, feedback given to the learners targeted questions within the learners’ developmental stage. Participants were asked to identify whether the language used differed from their own, and if so, to attempt to reproduce it. The findings show that feedback was often noticed, but no significant relationship was found between literacy level and noticing. However, there was a significant relationship between literacy level and the reproduction of targeted forms. This study, like the others contained within this section, is concerned with the developmental readiness of second language learners to acquire target forms and the approach is closely aligned with that of Li and Iwashita (this volume). However, it does differ in that its participants are learners of a second dialect with low literacy levels, representing an under-studied population.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.16hei
371
390
20
Chapter
21
01
Chapter 16. The role of grammatical development in oral assessment
1
A01
Maria Eklund Heinonen
Heinonen, Maria Eklund
Maria Eklund
Heinonen
Södertörn University
01
Tests today are usually based on a communicative view of language, with less focus on grammar. In this chapter, a study is presented that investigates whether there is a difference in terms of grammatical development between a group of test-takers who passed and a group who failed an oral language test. The study addresses theories of SLA and language testing, i.e., Processability Theory and the model of Communicative Language Ability, the construct of the test. Data from learners’ test performances were analysed using PT in order to see whether there was a consistent relationship between the PT stage analysis and the results derived from the test. The comparison shows a clear difference between the test-takers who passed and those who failed in terms of grammatical development. This implies a correlation between grammatical development and communicative competence in general which may indicate that PT constitutes a useful basis for oral assessment.
10
01
JB code
palart.7.17nic
391
398
8
Chapter
22
01
Chapter 17. How does PT’s view of acquisition relate to the challenge of widening perspectives on SLA?
1
A01
Howard Nicholas
Nicholas, Howard
Howard
Nicholas
La Trobe University
2
A01
Anke Lenzing
Lenzing, Anke
Anke
Lenzing
Paderborn University
3
A01
Jana Roos
Roos, Jana
Jana
Roos
Potsdam University
10
01
JB code
palart.7.ind
399
404
6
Miscellaneous
23
01
Index
02
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