Regardless of the reasons for which L3 phonology has not received its due attention in acquisition research in the past, its growth over the last few years has been significant. Notwithstanding, what we know within this domain thus far barely scratches the surface of what we endeavor to uncover. The purpose of this chapter, therefore, is to provide an overview of existing research coupled with a critical discussion of the theoretical and methodological hurdles to overcome as the field grows, as well as to outline the directions that generative L3 phonological research can take and what such directions can yield not only for L3 acquisition specifically, but also for language acquisition theory more generally.
This chapter deals with the assumed qualitative difference between the learning of a chronologically true L2 and the subsequent learning of an L3, and the related issue of transfer from L2 into L3. In fact, some recent studies show that L2 can take on a stronger role than L1 as a transfer source in L3 learning. A possible explanation for this phenomenon is a strong impact of the L2 status factor, which we argue is due to the higher degree of cognitive similarity between L2 and L3 than between L1 and L3. Further theoretical support to the L2 status factor, as one of several possibly interacting factors that may determine the transfer source (L1, L2/s), is here provided by a neurolinguistic account, suggesting that the distinction between declarative and procedural memory can account for what might lie behind it.
This contribution has four parts: in the first part, existing models of multilingual processing are presented and some of their main characteristics are discussed. In the second part, the Dynamic Systems Theory is presented in brief followed by a discussion what this means for our traditional way of looking at multilingual processing. In the third part, the requirements for a dynamic model are sketched. Finally, the relation between multilingualism and a dynamic systems approach is discussed.
This paper begins by providing a brief historical overview of perspectives on the notion of cross-linguistic influence. It goes on to discuss the application of this notion to the lexical domain, and then offers some thoughts on what cross-lexical interaction does and does not imply with regard to the organization of the mental lexicon. In particular, the paper argues that the first language mental lexicon and the mental lexicons of additional languages known to an individual are neither impermeably separate nor radically unitary. It also calls into question the proposition that cross-lexical interplay is simply a matter of languages blurring into one another.
This paper approaches the research questions in current L3 acquisition research from the point of view of the current debates in L2A. We consider published L3 acquisition data to see whether four current hypotheses: the Feature Reassembly Hypothesis, the Interface Hypothesis, the Bottleneck Hypothesis and the Interpretability Hypothesis can give us explanations of the linguistic processes of multilingualism. As an answer to the question “what transfers in L3A?”, the Modular Transfer Hypothesis is proposed, arguing that what transfers is essentially dependent on the intrinsic difficulty of the linguistic property. It is demonstrated that difficulty depends both on morphology and/or meaning mismatches between the L1, L2 and L3, as well as on the frequency of the available evidence for the property to be acquired.
The Cumulative- Enhancement Model proposed by Flynn et al. (2004) seeks to provide an explanatory model for multiple language acquisition. Results reported in this paper present further evidence in support of this model. Results of an elicited imitation task comparing the production of relative clauses by learners of German L1 and Hungarian L1/German L2 acquiring L2 and L3 English respectively at three levels of proficiency indicate, on the one hand, an increased facilitation in subsequent acquisition with each new language learned and, on the other hand, development of syntactic knowledge in L3 acquisition that cannot be explained in terms of an astructural transfer from the last language learned.
In order to test current generative third language (L3) acquisition theories, this study attempts to tease apart the effect of first (L1) and second language (L2) knowledge on properties in the L3 of German. The properties tested are gender assignment, gender concord and the definite/indefinite contrast. The groups are L1 Spanish and L1 Japanese, both groups with L2 English. The L2 proficiency level was also considered and a general trend was observed such that learners with a higher L2 proficiency outperformed those with a lower one. In relation to the question of access to Universal Grammar (UG) by non-native learners, a task effect was found in that the results from the definiteness task offer some limited support for ‘Full Access’ accounts; however overall there is stronger, albeit indirect, support for representational deficit accounts.
We examine the role of L2 syntactic development in L3 acquisition. Participants included 132 L3 learners of English (L2 Russian/L1 Tuvan) and 20 L2 learners of English (L1 Russian). The study focused on the comprehension of coordinate clauses and relative clauses, structures which are similar in Russian and English; L3 learners were tested in both languages. Results for the L3 learners showed that better performance in L2 Russian led to better performance on L3 English coordinate clauses. However, performance on L3 English relative clauses was better predicted by level of English proficiency than L2 Russian syntactic development. We propose that morphosyntactic differences between the L2/L3 can hinder the potential for facilitation between languages despite similarities at the level of syntax.
This contribution investigates interindividual variation in self-perceived proficiency ratings for speaking, listening, reading and writing of 122 Galician students in Spanish, Galician, English and French. The independent variables include family and school language(s), the number of languages known, the knowledge of other Romance or Germanic languages, language attitudes and age of onset of acquisition. Independent variables for foreign languages also included visits to the target language countries and the frequency of watching foreign television channels. The effect of gender and age were considered as well. Statistical analyses revealed that with the exception of Spanish, self-perceived proficiency scores were linked to a wide range of independent variables and that the same independent variables did not necessarily have similar effects across languages.
This is a follow-up on earlier studies of vocabulary acquisition and cross-linguistic influence (CLI) in advanced learners’ spoken French L3 (Lindqvist 2009, 2010; Lindqvist, Bardel & Gudmundson 2011). The purpose is to study advanced learners’ word choices in oral retellings of video films, focusing on the words chosen to express key objects, events or persons (see Jarvis 2000). It is investigated whether word choices differ between advanced learners and native speakers, and between advanced and low-intermediate learners. CLI in the learners’ word choices is also investigated. The results show that the learners use more general words than the native speakers. Furthermore, the advanced learners have more meaning-based CLI, while the low-intermediate learners have more formal CLI. Finally, some advanced learners transfer a preferred L1 option into L3.
Research on the phonological acquisition of a third language (L3) is still in its infancy; therefore, the present contribution is intended to further investigate the area by focusing on the phenomenon of foreign accentedness and the widely disputed sources of cross-linguistic influence in L3 phonology. The study employs the technique of perceptual judgement of a foreign accent in a third language. It aims to determine whether trilingual speakers of typologically unrelated languages (i.e. L1 Polish, L2 French and L3 English) have a tendency toward L1- or L2-accented speech in L3 performance and whether this tendency is subject to change with respect to different L3 proficiency levels. The results, based on the raters’ identification of the subjects’ first language, point to the prevailing influence of the L1 Polish on the L3 English phonology irrespective of the level of L3 language proficiency, although some impact of the L2 French was also identified. Further research involving different language combinations is necessary to corroborate the directions and strength of the combined native and non-native cross-linguistic influence in the process of the acquisition of L3 phonology.
Regardless of the reasons for which L3 phonology has not received its due attention in acquisition research in the past, its growth over the last few years has been significant. Notwithstanding, what we know within this domain thus far barely scratches the surface of what we endeavor to uncover. The purpose of this chapter, therefore, is to provide an overview of existing research coupled with a critical discussion of the theoretical and methodological hurdles to overcome as the field grows, as well as to outline the directions that generative L3 phonological research can take and what such directions can yield not only for L3 acquisition specifically, but also for language acquisition theory more generally.
This chapter deals with the assumed qualitative difference between the learning of a chronologically true L2 and the subsequent learning of an L3, and the related issue of transfer from L2 into L3. In fact, some recent studies show that L2 can take on a stronger role than L1 as a transfer source in L3 learning. A possible explanation for this phenomenon is a strong impact of the L2 status factor, which we argue is due to the higher degree of cognitive similarity between L2 and L3 than between L1 and L3. Further theoretical support to the L2 status factor, as one of several possibly interacting factors that may determine the transfer source (L1, L2/s), is here provided by a neurolinguistic account, suggesting that the distinction between declarative and procedural memory can account for what might lie behind it.
This contribution has four parts: in the first part, existing models of multilingual processing are presented and some of their main characteristics are discussed. In the second part, the Dynamic Systems Theory is presented in brief followed by a discussion what this means for our traditional way of looking at multilingual processing. In the third part, the requirements for a dynamic model are sketched. Finally, the relation between multilingualism and a dynamic systems approach is discussed.
This paper begins by providing a brief historical overview of perspectives on the notion of cross-linguistic influence. It goes on to discuss the application of this notion to the lexical domain, and then offers some thoughts on what cross-lexical interaction does and does not imply with regard to the organization of the mental lexicon. In particular, the paper argues that the first language mental lexicon and the mental lexicons of additional languages known to an individual are neither impermeably separate nor radically unitary. It also calls into question the proposition that cross-lexical interplay is simply a matter of languages blurring into one another.
This paper approaches the research questions in current L3 acquisition research from the point of view of the current debates in L2A. We consider published L3 acquisition data to see whether four current hypotheses: the Feature Reassembly Hypothesis, the Interface Hypothesis, the Bottleneck Hypothesis and the Interpretability Hypothesis can give us explanations of the linguistic processes of multilingualism. As an answer to the question “what transfers in L3A?”, the Modular Transfer Hypothesis is proposed, arguing that what transfers is essentially dependent on the intrinsic difficulty of the linguistic property. It is demonstrated that difficulty depends both on morphology and/or meaning mismatches between the L1, L2 and L3, as well as on the frequency of the available evidence for the property to be acquired.
The Cumulative- Enhancement Model proposed by Flynn et al. (2004) seeks to provide an explanatory model for multiple language acquisition. Results reported in this paper present further evidence in support of this model. Results of an elicited imitation task comparing the production of relative clauses by learners of German L1 and Hungarian L1/German L2 acquiring L2 and L3 English respectively at three levels of proficiency indicate, on the one hand, an increased facilitation in subsequent acquisition with each new language learned and, on the other hand, development of syntactic knowledge in L3 acquisition that cannot be explained in terms of an astructural transfer from the last language learned.
In order to test current generative third language (L3) acquisition theories, this study attempts to tease apart the effect of first (L1) and second language (L2) knowledge on properties in the L3 of German. The properties tested are gender assignment, gender concord and the definite/indefinite contrast. The groups are L1 Spanish and L1 Japanese, both groups with L2 English. The L2 proficiency level was also considered and a general trend was observed such that learners with a higher L2 proficiency outperformed those with a lower one. In relation to the question of access to Universal Grammar (UG) by non-native learners, a task effect was found in that the results from the definiteness task offer some limited support for ‘Full Access’ accounts; however overall there is stronger, albeit indirect, support for representational deficit accounts.
We examine the role of L2 syntactic development in L3 acquisition. Participants included 132 L3 learners of English (L2 Russian/L1 Tuvan) and 20 L2 learners of English (L1 Russian). The study focused on the comprehension of coordinate clauses and relative clauses, structures which are similar in Russian and English; L3 learners were tested in both languages. Results for the L3 learners showed that better performance in L2 Russian led to better performance on L3 English coordinate clauses. However, performance on L3 English relative clauses was better predicted by level of English proficiency than L2 Russian syntactic development. We propose that morphosyntactic differences between the L2/L3 can hinder the potential for facilitation between languages despite similarities at the level of syntax.
This contribution investigates interindividual variation in self-perceived proficiency ratings for speaking, listening, reading and writing of 122 Galician students in Spanish, Galician, English and French. The independent variables include family and school language(s), the number of languages known, the knowledge of other Romance or Germanic languages, language attitudes and age of onset of acquisition. Independent variables for foreign languages also included visits to the target language countries and the frequency of watching foreign television channels. The effect of gender and age were considered as well. Statistical analyses revealed that with the exception of Spanish, self-perceived proficiency scores were linked to a wide range of independent variables and that the same independent variables did not necessarily have similar effects across languages.
This is a follow-up on earlier studies of vocabulary acquisition and cross-linguistic influence (CLI) in advanced learners’ spoken French L3 (Lindqvist 2009, 2010; Lindqvist, Bardel & Gudmundson 2011). The purpose is to study advanced learners’ word choices in oral retellings of video films, focusing on the words chosen to express key objects, events or persons (see Jarvis 2000). It is investigated whether word choices differ between advanced learners and native speakers, and between advanced and low-intermediate learners. CLI in the learners’ word choices is also investigated. The results show that the learners use more general words than the native speakers. Furthermore, the advanced learners have more meaning-based CLI, while the low-intermediate learners have more formal CLI. Finally, some advanced learners transfer a preferred L1 option into L3.
Research on the phonological acquisition of a third language (L3) is still in its infancy; therefore, the present contribution is intended to further investigate the area by focusing on the phenomenon of foreign accentedness and the widely disputed sources of cross-linguistic influence in L3 phonology. The study employs the technique of perceptual judgement of a foreign accent in a third language. It aims to determine whether trilingual speakers of typologically unrelated languages (i.e. L1 Polish, L2 French and L3 English) have a tendency toward L1- or L2-accented speech in L3 performance and whether this tendency is subject to change with respect to different L3 proficiency levels. The results, based on the raters’ identification of the subjects’ first language, point to the prevailing influence of the L1 Polish on the L3 English phonology irrespective of the level of L3 language proficiency, although some impact of the L2 French was also identified. Further research involving different language combinations is necessary to corroborate the directions and strength of the combined native and non-native cross-linguistic influence in the process of the acquisition of L3 phonology.