Explicit knowledge about language in L2 learning
A usage-based perspective
This chapter discusses explicit knowledge about language in second language (L2) learning from a usage-based perspective, which is here defined broadly to include theoretical approaches such as complexity theory, emergentism, cognitive linguistics and related constructionist theories of language. A definition of explicit and implicit knowledge and learning is provided, followed by a brief outline of the main claims of the theories included under the usage-based umbrella. Then ways of measuring explicit knowledge in L2 learning that are compatible with a usage-based perspective are presented. Drawing on the theoretical concepts introduced as well as empirical findings to date, the role of explicit knowledge in L2 learning including both benefits and limitations is detailed. Finally, suggestions for further research are put forward.
References
Abbot-Smith, K., & Tomasello, M
(
2006)
Exemplar-learning and schematization in a usage-based account of syntactic acquisition.
The Linguistic Review, 23(3), 275–290.


Akakura, M
(
2012)
Evaluating the effectiveness of explicit instruction on implicit and explicit L2 knowledge.
Language Teaching Research, 16(1), 9–37.


Alderson, J.C., Clapham, C., & Steel, D
(
1997)
Metalinguistic knowledge, language aptitude and language proficiency.
Language Teaching Research, 1, 93–121.


Anderson, J.R
(
2005)
Cognitive psychology and its implications (6th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.

Baddeley, A.D
(
2000)
The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(11), 417–423.


Baddeley, A.D., & Logie, R.H
(
1999)
Working memory: The multiple-component model. In
A. Miyake &
P. Shah (Eds.),
Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control (pp. 28–61). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.


Beckner, C., Blythe, R., Bybee, J.L., Christiansen, M.H., Croft, W., Ellis, N.C., et al.
(
2009)
Language is a complex adaptive system: Position paper.
Language Learning, 59(s1), 1–26.


Bybee, J.L., & McClelland, J.L
(
2005)
Alternatives to the combinatorial paradigm of linguistic theory based on domain general principles of human cognition.
The Linguistic Review, 22(2-4), 381–410.


Cleeremans, A., & Destrebecqz, A
(
2005)
Real rules are conscious.
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(1), 19–20.


Collins, L., Trofimovich, P., White, J., Cardoso, W., & Horst, M
(
2009)
Some input on the easy/difficult grammar question: An empirical study.
Modern Language Journal, 93(3), 336–353.


de Bot, K., Lowie, W., & Verspoor, M
(
2007)
A dynamic systems theory approach to second language acquisition.
Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 10(1), 7–21.


de Bot, K., Verspoor, M., & Lowie, W
(
2005)
Dynamic systems theory and applied linguistics: The ultimate "so what"? International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 15(1), 116–118.


DeKeyser, R.M
(
1994)
How implicit can adult second language learning be? AILA Review, 11, 83–96.

DeKeyser, R.M
(
2005)
What makes learning second-language grammar difficult? A review of issues.
Language Learning, 55(s1), 1–25.


Diesendruck, G
(
2005) &
quot;Commitment" distinguishes between rules and similarity: A developmental perspective.
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(1), 21–22.


Dörnyei, Z
(
2009)
The psychology of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Elder, C., & Manwaring, D
(
2004)
The relationship between metalinguistic knowledge and learning outcomes among undergraduate students of Chinese.
Language Awareness, 13(3), 145–162.


Elder, C., Warren, J., Hajek, J., Manwaring, D., & Davies, A
(
1999)
Metalinguistic knowledge: How important is it in studying a language at university? Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 22(1), 81–95.

Ellis, N.C
(
1993)
Rules and instances in foreign language learning: Interactions of explicit and implicit knowledge.
European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 5(3), 289–318.


Ellis, N.C
(
1994)
Consciousness in second language learning: Psychological perspectives on the role of conscious processes in vocabulary acquisition.
AILA Review, 11, 37–56.

Ellis, N.C
(
2001)
Memory for language. In
P. Robinson (Ed.),
Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 33–68). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.


Ellis, N.C
(
2002a)
Frequency effects in language processing: A review with implications for theories of implicit and explicit language acquisition.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24(2), 143–188.


Ellis, N.C
(
2002b)
Reflections on frequency effects in language processing.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24(2), 297–340.

Ellis, N.C
(
2003)
Constructions, chunking, and connectionism: The emergence of second language structure. In
C.J. Doughty &
M.H. Long (Eds.),
The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 63–103). Malden, MA: Blackwell.


Ellis, N.C
(
2005)
At the interface: Dynamic interactions of explicit and implicit language knowledge.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2), 305–352.


Ellis, N.C
(
2007)
The associative-cognitive CREED. In
B. VanPatten &
J. Williams (Eds.),
Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 77–95). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Ellis, N.C
(
2011)
Implicit and explicit SLA and their interface. In
C. Sanz &
R.P. Leow (Eds.),
Implicit and explicit language learning: Conditions, processes, and knowledge in SLA and bilingualism (pp. 35–47). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

Ellis, N.C., & Larsen-Freeman, D
(
2006)
Language emergence: Implications for applied linguistics.
Applied Linguistics, 27(4), 558–589.


Ellis, R
(
2004)
The definition and measurement of L2 explicit knowledge.
Language Learning, 54(2), 227–275.


Ellis, R
(
2005)
Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language: A psychometric study.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2), 141–172.


Ellis, R
(
2006)
Modelling learning difficulty and second language proficiency: The differential contributions of implicit and explicit knowledge.
Applied Linguistics, 27(3), 431–463.


Eskildsen, S.W
(
2009)
Constructing another language: Usage-based linguistics in second language acquisition.
Applied Linguistics, 30(3), 335–357.


Eskildsen, S.W
(
2012)
L2 negation constructions at work.
Language Learning, 62(2), 335–372.


Evans, V., & Green, M
(
2006)
Cognitive linguistics: An introduction. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Gánem-Gutiérrez, G.A., & Roehr, K
(
2011)
Use of L1, metalanguage, and discourse markers: L2 learners' regulation during individual task performance.
International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 21(3), 297–318.


Goldberg, A.E
(
2003)
Constructions: A new theoretical approach to language.
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(5), 219–224.


Goldschneider, J.M., & DeKeyser, R.M
(
2001)
Explaining the "natural order of L2 morpheme acquisition" in English: A meta-analysis of multiple determinants.
Language Learning, 51, 1–50.


Green, P.S., & Hecht, K
(
1992)
Implicit and explicit grammar: An empirical study.
Applied Linguistics, 13(2), 168–184.


Hampton, J.A
(
2005)
Rules and similarity - a false dichotomy.
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(1), 26.


Howe, M.L., & Lewis, M.D
(
2005)
The importance of dynamic systems approaches for understanding development.
Developmental Review, 25, 247–251.


Hu, G
(
2011)
Metalinguistic knowledge, metalanguage, and their relationship in L2 learners.
System, 39(1), 63–77.


Hulstijn, J.H
(
2005)
Theoretical and empirical issues in the study of implicit and explicit second-language learning: Introduction.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2), 129–140.


Hulstijn, J.H., & de Graaff, R
(
1994)
Under what conditions does explicit knowledge of a second language facilitate the acquisition of implicit knowledge? A research proposal.
AILA Review, 11, 97–112.

Just, M.A., & Carpenter, P.A
(
1992)
A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory.
Psychological Review, 99(1), 122–149.


Kemmer, S., & Barlow, M
(
2000)
Introduction: A usage-based conception of language. In
M. Barlow &
S. Kemmer (Eds.),
Usage-based models of language (pp. vii–xxviii). Stanford, CA: CSLI.

Langacker, R.W
(
1998)
Conceptualization, symbolization, and grammar. In
M. Tomasello (Ed.),
The new psychology of language: Cognitive and functional approaches to language structure (Vol. 1, pp. 1–40). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Langacker, R.W
(
2000)
A dynamic usage-based model. In
M. Barlow &
S. Kemmer (Eds.),
Usage-based models of language (pp. 1–64). Stanford, CA: CSLI.

Larsen-Freeman, D
(
1997)
Chaos/complexity science and second language acquisition.
Applied Linguistics, 18(2), 141–165.


Larsen-Freeman, D
(
2006)
The emergence of complexity, fluency, and accuracy in the oral and written production of five Chinese learners of English.
Applied Linguistics, 27(4), 590–619.


Larsen-Freeman, D
(
2009)
Adjusting expectations: The study of complexity, accuracy, and fluency in second language acquisition.
Applied Linguistics, 30(4), 579–589.


Larsen-Freeman, D., & Cameron, L
(
2008)
Complex systems and applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Macaro, E., & Masterman, L
(
2006)
Does intensive explicit grammar instruction make all the difference? Language Teaching Research, 10(3), 297–327.


Markman, A.B., Blok, S., Kom, K., Larkey, L., Narvaez, L.R., Stilwell, C.H., et al.
(
2005)
Digging beneath rules and similarity.
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(1), 29–30.


Miyake, A., & Friedman, N.P
(
1998)
Individual differences in second language proficiency: Working memory as language aptitude. In
A.F. Healy &
L.E. Bourne (Eds.),
Foreign language learning: Psycholinguistic studies on training and retention (pp. 339–364). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Murphy, G.L
(
2004)
The big book of concepts. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Murphy, R
(
1994)
English grammar in use (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Norris, J.M., & Ortega, L
(
2001)
Does type of instruction make a difference? Substantive findings from a meta-analytic review.
Language Learning, 51(1), 157–213.


Peterson, E.R., & Deary, I.J
(
2006)
Examining the wholistic-analytic style using preferences in early information processing.
Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 3–14.


Peterson, E.R., Deary, I.J., & Austin, E.J
(
2003)
The reliability of Riding's Cognitive Style Analysis test.
Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 881–891.


Pothos, E.M
(
2005)
The rules versus similarity distinction.
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(1), 1–49.


Renou, J.M
(
2000)
Learner accuracy and learner performance: The quest for a link.
Foreign Language Annals, 33(2), 168–180.


Riding, R.J
(
2001)
The nature and effects of cognitive style. In
R.J. Sternberg &
L.-F. Zhang (Eds.),
Perspectives on thinking, learning, and cognitive styles (pp. 47–72). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Riding, R.J., & Cheema, I
(
1991)
Cognitive styles: An overview and integration.
Educational Psychology, 11(3/4), 193–215.


Robinson, P
(
1997)
Generalizability and automaticity of second language learning under implicit, incidental, enhanced, and instructed conditions.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 223–247.


Roehr-Brackin, K
(
2013)
The developmental trajectory in instructed L2 learning: A case study. Paper presented at the SELC Conference 'Thinking, doing, learning: Usage-based perspectives on second language learning', Odense, Denmark, 24-26 April 2013.
Roehr, K
(
2006)
Metalinguistic knowledge in L2 task performance: A verbal protocol analysis.
Language Awareness, 15(3), 180–198.


Roehr, K
(
2008a)
Linguistic and metalinguistic categories in second language learning.
Cognitive Linguistics, 19(1), 67–106.


Roehr, K
(
2008b)
Metalinguistic knowledge and language ability in university-level L2 learners.
Applied Linguistics, 29(2), 173–199.


Roehr, K
(
2010a)
The development of metalinguistic awareness and oral L2 proficiency: A longitudinal case study. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Canadian Association of Applied Linguistics, Concordia University Montréal, 1-3 June 2010.
Roehr, K
(
2012)
Theoretical foundations. In
A. Tellier (Ed.),
Esperanto as a starter language for child second-language learners in the primary school (pp. 19–22). Stoke-on-Trent: Esperanto UK.

Roehr, K., & Gánem-Gutiérrez, G.A
(
2009a)
Metalinguistic knowledge: A stepping stone towards L2 proficiency? In
A. Benati (Ed.),
Issues in second language proficiency (pp. 79–94). London: Continuum.

Roehr, K., & Gánem-Gutiérrez, G.A
(
2009b)
The status of metalinguistic knowledge in instructed adult L2 learning.
Language Awareness, 18(2), 165–181.


Rosch, E
(
1978)
Principles of categorization. In
E. Rosch &
B.B. Lloyd (Eds.),
Cognition and categorization (pp. 27–48). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Rosch, E., & Mervis, C.B
(
1975)
Family resemblances: Studies in the internal structure of categories.
Cognitive Psychology, 7, 573–605.


Scheffler, P., & Cinciała, M
(
2011)
Explicit grammar rules and L2 acquisition.
ELT Journal, 65(1), 13–23.


Schmidt, R.W
(
1990)
The role of consciousness in SLA learning.
Applied Linguistics, 11, 129–158.


Schmidt, R.W
(
2001)
Attention. In
P. Robinson (Ed.),
Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3–32). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.


Sloman, S
(
2005)
Avoiding foolish consistency.
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(1), 33–34.


Smith, E.E
(
2005)
Rule and similarity as prototype concepts.
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(1), 34–35.


Spada, N., & Tomita, Y
(
2010)
Interactions between type of instruction and type of language feature: A meta-analysis.
Language Learning, 60(2), 263–308.


Spoelman, M., & Verspoor, M
(
2010)
Dynamic patterns in development of accuracy and complexity: A longitudinal cse study in the acquisition of Finnish.
Applied Linguistics, 31(4), 532–553.


Swain, M
(
1998)
Focus on form through conscious reflection. In
C.J. Doughty &
J. Williams (Eds.),
Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 64–81). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Swan, M
(
1995)
Practical English usage (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Taylor, J.R
(
1998)
Syntactic constructions as prototype categories. In
M. Tomasello (Ed.),
The new psychology of language: Cognitive and functional approaches to language structure (Vol. 1, pp. 177–202). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Taylor, J.R
(
2002)
Cognitive grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Taylor, J.R
(
2003)
Linguistic categorization (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Tellier, A., & Roehr-Brackin, K
(
2013a)
The development of language learning aptitude and metalinguistic awareness in primary-school children: A classroom study.
Essex Research Reports in Linguistics, 62(1), 1–28.

Tellier, A., & Roehr-Brackin, K
Thelen, E., & Bates, E
(
2003)
Connectionism and dynamic systems: Are they really different? Developmental Science, 6(4), 378–391.


Thepseenu, B., & Roehr, K
(
2013)
University-level learners' beliefs about metalinguistic knowledge. In
K. Roehr &
G.A. Gánem-Gutiérrez (Eds.),
The metalinguistic dimension in instructed L2 learning (pp. 95–117). London: Bloomsbury.

Tomasello, M
(
2003)
Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language acquisition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Tomasello, M
(
2005)
Beyond formalities: The case of language acquisition.
The Linguistic Review, 22(2-4), 183–197.


Ungerer, F., & Schmid, H.-J
(
1996)
An introduction to cognitive linguistics. London: Longman.

van Geert, P
(
2007)
Dynamic systems in second language learning: Some general methodological reflections.
Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 10(1), 47–49.


Ziętek, A.A., & Roehr, K
(
2011)
Metalinguistic knowledge and cognitive style in Polish classroom learners of English.
System, 39(4), 417–426.


Cited by
Cited by 4 other publications
Alonso-Aparicio, Irene
Toropainen, Outi, Sinikka Lahtinen & Anne-Maj Åberg
2020.
Metaspråklig kunskap i andraspråksskribenters reflektioner.
Nordand 15:2
► pp. 111 ff.

VanPatten, Bill & Megan Smith
2022.
Explicit and Implicit Learning in Second Language Acquisition,

Wijaya, David & Evelyn Winstin
2021.
Investigating Indonesian EFL learners’ knowledge and use of English causative constructions.
International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 0:0

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 11 march 2023. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.