Cover not available
Part of
Understanding Language and Cognition through Bilingualism: In honor of Ellen Bialystok
Edited by Gigi Luk, John A.E. Anderson and John G. Grundy
[Studies in Bilingualism 64] 2023
► pp. 12–37

Chapter 2
From the spatial ego to cognitive control

Ellen Bialystok’s early work, 1976–1988

 | University of California Irvine
 | McGill University
Ellen Bialystok’s early work from 1976–1988 has had a lasting influence on the fields of bilingualism and linguistics. This chapter reviews her seminal work establishing bilingualism as a cross-disciplinary area of study in 1976. It then explores Bialystok’s language processing research of the 1980’s, articulating two of her crucial, yet often overlooked achievements. First, Bialystok’s early information processing models for word-level representations set the stage for an explosion of cognitive bilingualism research by identifying cognitive processes involved in second language acquisition. Second, her work set a precedent for understanding the spectrum of language experiences and their complexities, providing essential insight into why even subtle distinctions should be considered and reported when describing bilinguals. Presciently, Bialystok’s early work anticipated current understandings and future directions for bilingualism research, making her sustained contributions to the area an invaluable asset for continued exploration.
Article outline
  • Sibylla’s note
  • “Not the bilingualism stuff”
  • Bringing cognition to language: Information processing models of bilingualism
  • The complexity of language experience
  • Information processing models and bilingual complexity: Person and process
    • Cognitive models and complexity at the person level
    • Cognitive models and complexity at the process level
  • From early foundations to new directions
  • Note
  • References
Published online: 6 June 2023
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.64.02leo
References (130)
References
Abutalebi, J., & Clahsen, H. (2020). Heritage languages, infants’ language recognition, and artificial grammars for bilingualism research. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(1), 2–3. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Altmann, G. T., & Kamide, Y. (1999). Incremental interpretation at verbs: Restricting the domain of subsequent reference. Cognition, 73(3), 247–264. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). Academic Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bayram, F., Rothman, J., Pisa, G. D., & Slabakova, R. (2020). Current trends and emerging methodologies in charting heritage language bilingual grammars. PsyArXiv Preprints. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Beatty-Martínez, A. L., Navarro-Torres, C. A., Dussias, P. E., Bajo, M. T., Guzzardo Tamargo, R. E., & Kroll, J. F. (2020). Interactional context mediates the consequences of bilingualism for language and cognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 46(6), 1022–1047. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bellack, A.A. (1966). The language of the classroom. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Berken, J. A., Gracco, V. L., & Klein, D. (2017). Early bilingualism, language attainment, and brain development. Neuropsychologia, 98(Supplement C), 220–227. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Berthele, R. (2008). Dialekt-standard situationen als embryonale mehrsprachigkeit. Erkenntnisse zum interlingualen potenzial des provinzlerdaseins. Sociolinguistica, 22(1), 87–107. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bhattasali, S., Fabre, M., Luh, W.-M., Al Saied, H., Constant, M., Pallier, C., Brennan, J. R., Spreng, R. N., & Hale, J. (2019). Localising memory retrieval and syntactic composition: An fMRI study of naturalistic language comprehension. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 34(4), 491–510. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E. (1976). Development of spatial concepts in language and thought. University of Toronto.Google Scholar
(1978). A theoretical model of second language learning. Language Learning, 28(1), 69–83. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1979a). An analytical view of second language competence: A model and some evidence. The Modern Language Journal, 63(5/6), 257–262. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1979b). Explicit and implicit judgements of L2 grammaticality. Language Learning, 29(1), 81–103. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1981). The role of linguistic knowledge in second language use. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 4(1), 31–45. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1985). The compatibility of teaching and learning strategies. Applied Linguistics, 6(3), 255–262. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1986a). Factors in the growth of linguistic awareness. Child Development, 57(2), 498–510. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1986b). Children’s concept of word. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 15(1), 13–32. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1987a). Metalinguistic dimensions of second language proficiency (pp. 1–23). [URL]
(1987b). Influences of bilingualism on metalinguistic development. Interlanguage Studies Bulletin (Utrecht), 3(2), 154–166. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2021). Bilingualism as a slice of Swiss cheese. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Codd, J. (1987). Children’s interpretations of ambiguous spatial descriptions. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5(3), 205–211. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1996). Developing representations of quantity. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue Canadienne des Sciences du Comportement, 28(4), 281–291. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1997). Cardinal limits: Evidence from language awareness and bilingualism for developing concepts of number. Cognitive Development, 12(1), 85–106. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Luk, G. (2012). Bilingualism: Consequences for mind and brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4), 240–250. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Fröhlich, M. (1977). Second language learning and teaching in classroom settings: The learning study, year one. Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. [URL]
(1978). Variables of classroom achievement in second language learning. The Modern Language Journal, 62(7), 327–336. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., Fröhlich, M., & Howard, J. (1978). The teaching and learning of French as a second language in two distinct learning settings (pp. 1–125). Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. [URL]
Bialystok, E., & Howard, J. (1979). Inferencing as an aspect of cloze test performance (pp. 24–36). Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Ryan, E. B. (1985). Toward a definition of metalinguistic skill. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 31(3), 229–251.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Swain, M. (1978). Methodological approaches to research in second language learning. McGill Journal of Education / Revue des Sciences de l’éducation de McGill, 13(002), Article 002. [URL]
Bice, K., & Kroll, J. F. (2021). Grammatical processing in two languages: How individual differences in language experience and cognitive abilities shape comprehension in heritage bilinguals. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 58, 100963. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Brennan, J., Nir, Y., Hasson, U., Malach, R., Heeger, D. J., & Pylkkänen, L. (2012). Syntactic structure building in the anterior temporal lobe during natural story listening. Brain and Language, 120(2), 163–173. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Brennan, J. R., & Pylkkänen, L. (2017). MEG evidence for incremental sentence composition in the anterior temporal lobe. Cognitive Science, 41, 1515–1531. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Brennan, J. R., Stabler, E. P., Van Wagenen, S. E., Luh, W.-M., & Hale, J. T. (2016). Abstract linguistic structure correlates with temporal activity during naturalistic comprehension. Brain and Language, 157–158, 81–94. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Brown, M. C., Sibley, D. E., Washington, J. A., Rogers, T. T., Edwards, J. R., MacDonald, M. C., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2015). Impact of dialect use on a basic component of learning to read. Frontiers in Psychology, 6. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Brunellière, A., Dufour, S., & Nguyen, N. (2011). Regional differences in the listener’s phonemic inventory affect semantic processing: A mismatch negativity (MMN) study. Brain and Language, 117(1), 45–51. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bühler, J. C., Schmid, S., & Maurer, U. (2017). Influence of dialect use on speech perception: A mismatch negativity study. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 32(6), 757–775. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Calabria, M., Costa, A., Green, D. W., & Abutalebi, J. (2018). Neural basis of bilingual language control. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1426(1), 221–235. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cargnelutti, E., Tomasino, B., & Fabbro, F. (2019). Language brain representation in bilinguals with different age of appropriation and proficiency of the second language: A meta-analysis of functional imaging studies. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chambers, J. K., & Trudgill, P. (1998). Dialectology. Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chang, C. B. (2019). Language change and linguistic inquiry in a world of multicompetence: Sustained phonetic drift and its implications for behavioral linguistic research. Journal of Phonetics, 74, 96–113. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. The MIT Press.Google Scholar
Codd, J., & Bialystok, E. (1985, April). Resolving ambiguity from competing spatial frames of reference. Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Toronto, Canada. [URL]
Conrey, B., Potts, G. F., & Niedzielski, N. A. (2005). Effects of dialect on merger perception: ERP and behavioral correlates. Brain and Language, 95(3), 435–449. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dagenais, M. J. (1988). Bilingual education in Ontario: Issues and perspectives influencing development. Wayne State University.Google Scholar
Del Maschio, N., & Abutalebi, J. (2018). Neurobiology of bilingualism. In D. Miller, F. Bayram, J. Rothman, & L. Serratrice (Eds.), Studies in bilingualism (pp. 325–346). John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
DeLuca, V., Rothman, J., Bialystok, E., & Pliatsikas, C. (2019). Redefining bilingualism as a spectrum of experiences that differentially affects brain structure and function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(15), 7565–7574. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Deluca, V., Segaert, K., Mazaheri, A., & Krott, A. (2020). Understanding bilingual brain function and structure changes? U Bet! A Unified Bilingual Experience Trajectory Model. PsyArXiv Preprints. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dodel, S., Golestani, N., Pallier, C., ElKouby, V., Le Bihan, D., & Poline, J.-B. (2005). Condition-dependent functional connectivity: Syntax networks in bilinguals. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 360(1457), 921–935. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dreifus, C. (2011, May 30). The bilingual advantage. The New York Times. Retrieved on 2 December 2022 from [URL]
Friederici, A. D. (2012). The cortical language circuit: From auditory perception to sentence comprehension. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(5), 262–268. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Garcia, F. M. (2017). Brain responses to contrastive and noncontrastive morphosyntactic structures in African American English and Mainstream American English: ERP evidence for the neural indices of dialect (Doctoral dissertation). Columbia University. DOI logo
Golestani, N., Alario, F.-X., Meriaux, S., Le Bihan, D., Dehaene, S., & Pallier, C. (2006). Syntax production in bilinguals. Neuropsychologia, 44(7), 1029–1040. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gordon, M. (2018, September 23). Dr. Ellen Bialystok is unstoppable. Journey2Psychology. Retrieved on 2 December 2022 from [URL]
Green, D. W. (1986). Control, activation, and resource: A framework and a model for the control of speech in bilinguals. Brain and Language, 27(2), 210–223. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Green, D. W., & Abutalebi, J. (2013). Language control in bilinguals: The adaptive control hypothesis. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 515–530. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Grosjean, F. (1989). Neurolinguists, beware! The bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person. Brain and Language, 36(1), 3–15. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2013). Bilingualism: A short introduction. In F. Grosjean & P. Li (Eds.), The psycholinguistics of bilingualism (Vol. 2, p. 5). Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Grundy, J. G., Anderson, J. A. E., & Bialystok, E. (2017). Neural correlates of cognitive processing in monolinguals and bilinguals. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1396(1), 183–201. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Grundy, J. G., Pavlenko, E., & Bialystok, E. (2020). Bilingualism modifies disengagement of attention networks across the scalp: A multivariate ERP investigation of the IOR paradigm. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 56, 100933. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gullifer, J. W., & Titone, D. (2020). Characterizing the social diversity of bilingualism using language entropy. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(2), 283–294. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gurunandan, K., Arnaez-Telleria, J., Carreiras, M., & Paz-Alonso, P. M. (2020). Converging evidence for differential specialization and plasticity of language systems. Journal of Neuroscience, 40(50), 9715–9724. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hagoort, P. (2019). The neurobiology of language beyond single-word processing. Science, 366(6461), 55–58. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, L. S., & Huth, A. G. (2018). The revolution will not be controlled: Natural stimuli in speech neuroscience. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 35(5), 573–582. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Henderson, J. M., Choi, W., Lowder, M. W., & Ferreira, F. (2016). Language structure in the brain: A fixation-related fMRI study of syntactic surprisal in reading. NeuroImage, 132, 293–300. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hernández, M., Costa, A., Sebastián-Gallés, N., Juncadella, M., & Reñé, R. (2007). The organisation of nouns and verbs in bilingual speakers: A case of bilingual grammatical category-specific deficit. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20(4), 285–305. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jeong, H., Sugiura, M., Sassa, Y., Yokoyama, S., Horie, K., Sato, S., Taira, M., & Kawashima, R. (2007). Cross-linguistic influence on brain activation during second language processing: An fMRI study. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 10(2), 175–187. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kaan, E., Kheder, S., Kreidler, A., Tomić, A., & Valdés Kroff, J. R. (2020). Processing code-switches in the presence of others: An ERP study. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Khamis-Dakwar, R., & Froud, K. (2014). Neurocognitive modeling of the two language varieties in Arabic diglossia. In R. Khamis-Dakwar & K. Froud (Eds.), Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics XXVI: Papers from the Annual Symposium on Arabic Linguistics. New York, 2012 (pp. 285–302). John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kotz, S. A. (2009). A critical review of ERP and fMRI evidence on L2 syntactic processing. Brain and Language, 109(2–3), 68–74. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kroll, J. F., Dussias, P. E., Bogulski, C. A., & Valdes Kroff, J. R. (2012). Juggling two languages in one mind: What bilinguals tell us about language processing and its consequences for cognition. Psychology of Learning and Motivation-Advances in Research and Theory, 56, 229. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kuperberg, G. R., Brothers, T., & Wlotko, E. W. (2020). A tale of two positivities and the N400: Distinct neural signatures are evoked by confirmed and violated predictions at different levels of representation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 32(1), 12–35. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kuperberg, G. R., & Jaeger, T. F. (2016). What do we mean by prediction in language comprehension? Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 31(1), 32–59. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Labov, W. (1982). Objectivity and commitment in linguistic science: The case of the Black English trial in Ann Arbor. Language in Society, 11(2), 165–201. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lanwermeyer, M., Henrich, K., Rocholl, M. J., Schnell, H. T., Werth, A., Herrgen, J., & Schmidt, J. E. (2016). Dialect variation influences the phonological and lexical-semantic word processing in sentences: Electrophysiological evidence from a cross-dialectal comprehension study. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Li, P., & Grant, A. (2015). Identifying the causal link: Two approaches toward understanding the relationship between bilingualism and cognitive control. Cortex, 73, 358–360. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Li, X., Ren, G., Zheng, Y., & Chen, Y. (2020). How does dialectal experience modulate anticipatory speech processing? Journal of Memory and Language, 115, 104169. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lincoln, Y. S., Lynham, S. A., Guba, E. G., et al. (2011). Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging confluences, revisited. In The Sage handbook of qualitative research (Vol. 4, pp. 97–128). Sage.Google Scholar
López, B. G., Luque, A., & Piña-Watson, B. (2021). Context, intersectionality, and resilience: Moving toward a more holistic study of bilingualism in cognitive science. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Luk, G. (2015). Who are the bilinguals (and monolinguals)? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(1), 35–36. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 605–621. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Luke, K.-K., Liu, H.-L., Wai, Y.-Y., Wan, Y.-L., & Tan, L. H. (2002). Functional anatomy of syntactic and semantic processing in language comprehension. Human Brain Mapping, 16(3), 133–145. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lundquist, B., & Vangsnes, Ø. A. (2018). Language separation in bidialectal speakers: Evidence from eye tracking. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1394. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Martohardjono, G., Phillips, I., Madsen II, C. N., & Schwartz, R. G. (2017). Cross-linguistic influence in bilingual processing: An ERP study. In M. LaMendola & J. Scott (Eds.), BUCLD 41: Proceedings of the 41st annual Boston University Conference on Language Development (Vol. 2, pp. 452–465). Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar
May, S. (2019). Negotiating the multilingual turn in SLA. The Modern Language Journal, 103(S1), 122–129. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Meyer, L., & Friederici, A. D. (2016). Neural systems underlying the processing of complex sentences. In G. Hickok & S. L. Small (Eds.), Neurobiology of language (pp. 597–606). Academic Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Miglietta, S., Grimaldi, M., & Calabrese, A. (2013). Conditioned allophony in speech perception: An ERP study. Brain and Language, 126(3), 285–290. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Miller, P. H., & Scholnick, E. K. (2015). Feminist theory and contemporary developmental psychology: The case of children’s executive function. Feminism & Psychology, 25(3), 266–283. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mouthon, M., Khateb, A., Lazeyras, F., Pegna, A. J., Lee-Jahnke, H., Lehr, C., & Annoni, J.-M. (2020). Second-language proficiency modulates the brain language control network in bilingual translators: An event-related fMRI study. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(2), 251–264. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Navarro-Torres, C. A., Beatty-Martínez, A. L., Kroll, J. F., & Green, D. W. (2021). Research on bilingualism as discovery science. Brain and Language, 222, 105014. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nelson, M. J., El Karoui, I., Giber, K., Yang, X., Cohen, L., Koopman, H., Cash, S. S., Naccache, L., Hale, J. T., Pallier, C., & Dehaene, S. (2017). Neurophysiological dynamics of phrase-structure building during sentence processing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(18), E3669–E3678. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Newman, A. J., Tremblay, A., Nichols, E. S., Neville, H. J., & Ullman, M. T. (2011). The influence of language proficiency on lexical semantic processing in native and late learners of English. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24(5), 1205–1223. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Norman, D. A., & Shallice, T. (1986). Attention to action. In R. J. Davidson, G. E. Schwartz, & D. Shapiro (Eds.), Consciousness and self-regulation: Advances in research and theory (Vol, 4, pp. 1–18). Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ou, J., Li, W., Yang, Y., Wang, N., & Xu, M. (2020). Earlier second language acquisition is associated with greater neural pattern dissimilarity between the first and second languages. Brain and Language, 203, 104740. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Peal, E., & Lambert, W. E. (1962). The relation of bilingualism to intelligence. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 76(27), 1. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Perani, D., Paulesu, E., Galles, N. S., Dupoux, E., Dehaene, S., Bettinardi, V., Cappa, S. F., Fazio, F., & Mehler, J. (1998). The bilingual brain. Proficiency and age of acquisition of the second language. Brain, 121(10), 1841–1852. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pickering, M. J., & Gambi, C. (2018). Predicting while comprehending language: A theory and review. Psychological Bulletin, 144(10), 1002–1044. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pliatsikas, C., DeLuca, V., & Voits, T. (2020). The many shades of bilingualism: Language experiences modulate adaptations in brain structure. Language Learning, 70(S2), 133–149. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Polinsky, M., & Kagan, O. (2007). Heritage languages: In the ‘wild’ and in the classroom. Language and Linguistics Compass, 1(5), 368–395. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Polinsky, M., & Scontras, G. (2019). Understanding heritage languages. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22(5), 1–17.Google Scholar
Rickford, J. R. (1999). African American vernacular English: Features, evolution, educational implications. Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Roncaglia-Denissen, M. P., & Kotz, S. A. (2016). What does neuroimaging tell us about morphosyntactic processing in the brain of second language learners? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 19(4), 665–673. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rosa, J., & Flores, N. (2017). Unsettling race and language: Toward a raciolinguistic perspective. Language in Society, 46(5), 621–647. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rossi, E., Cheng, H., Kroll, J. F., Diaz, M. T., & Newman, S. D. (2017). Changes in white-matter connectivity in late second language learners: Evidence from diffusion tensor imaging. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2040. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rossi, E., Kroll, J. F., & Dussias, P. E. (2014). Clitic pronouns reveal the time course of processing gender and number in a second language. Neuropsychologia, 62, 11–25. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Saer, D. J. (1923). The effect of bilingualism on intelligence. British Journal of Psychology. General Section, 14(1), 25–38. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sakai, T., Koyama, M., Kumano, A., & Manabe, T. (2004). Toshiba BRIDJE at NTCIR-4 CLIR: Monolingual/bilingual IR and flexible feedback.Google Scholar
Scherer, L. C., Fonseca, R. P., Amiri, M., Adrover-Roig, D., Marcotte, K., Giroux, F., Senhadji, N., Benali, H., Lesage, F., & Ansaldo, A. I. (2012). Syntactic processing in bilinguals: An fNIRS study. Brain and Language, 121(2), 144–151. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, J. M., Auer, P., & Ferstl, E. C. (2018). Understanding fairy tales spoken in dialect: An fMRI study. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 34(4), 440–456. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Seo, R., Stocco, A., & Prat, C. S. (2018). The bilingual language network: Differential involvement of anterior cingulate, basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex in preparation, monitoring, and execution. NeuroImage, 174, 44–56. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Shain, C., Blank, I. A., van Schijndel, M., Schuler, W., & Fedorenko, E. (2020). FMRI reveals language-specific predictive coding during naturalistic sentence comprehension. Neuropsychologia, 138, 107307. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Skeide, M. A., & Friederici, A. D. (2016). The ontogeny of the cortical language network. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 17(5), 323–332. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Stern, M. C., Madsen, C. N., Stover, L. M., Lowry, C., & Martohardjono, G. (2019). Language history attenuates syntactic prediction in L1 processing. Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science, 3(2), 235–255. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Suh, S., Yoon, H. W., Lee, S., Chung, J.-Y., Cho, Z.-H., & Park, H. (2007). Effects of syntactic complexity in L1 and L2. An fMRI study of Korean–English bilinguals. Brain Research, 1136, 178–189. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sulpizio, S., Del Maschio, N., Fedeli, D., & Abutalebi, J. (2020). Bilingual language processing: A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 108, 834–853. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tang, M., Huang, Z.-L., Zhong, F., Xiang, J.-L., & Wang, X.-D. (2020). One-week phonemic training rebuilds the memory traces of merged phonemes in merged speakers. Brain Research, 1740, 146848. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tanner, D., Mclaughlin, J., Herschensohn, J., & Osterhout, L. (2013). Individual differences reveal stages of L2 grammatical acquisition: ERP evidence. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 16(2), 367–382. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tatsuno, Y., & Sakai, K. L. (2005). Language-related activations in the left prefrontal regions are differentially modulated by age, proficiency, and task demands. Journal of Neuroscience, 25(7), 1637–1644. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Terry, N. P., Connor, C. M., Johnson, L., Stuckey, A., & Tani, N. (2016). Dialect variation, dialect-shifting, and reading comprehension in second grade. Reading and Writing, 29(2), 267–295. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tettamanti, M., Alkadhi, H., Moro, A., Perani, D., Kollias, S., & Weniger, D. (2002). Neural correlates for the acquisition of natural language syntax. Neuroimage, 17(2), 700–709. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Thomas-Sunesson, D., Hakuta, K., & Bialystok, E. (2018). Degree of bilingualism modifies executive control in Hispanic children in the USA. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 21(2), 197–206. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tolentino, L. C., & Tokowicz, N. (2011). Across languages, space, and time: A review of the role of cross-language similarity in L2 (morpho)syntactic processing as revealed by fMRI and ERP methods. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 33(1), 91–125. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Van de Putte, E., De Baene, W., Brass, M., & Duyck, W. (2017). Neural overlap of L1 and L2 semantic representations in speech: A decoding approach. NeuroImage, 162, 106–116. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wartenburger, I., Heekeren, H. R., Abutalebi, J., Cappa, S. F., Villringer, A., & Perani, D. (2003). Early setting of grammatical processing in the bilingual brain. Neuron, 37(1), 159–170. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Weissler, R. E., & Brennan, J. (2020). How do listeners form grammatical expectations to African American language? University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 25(2). [URL]
Wiener, S., & Tokowicz, N. (2019). Language proficiency is only part of the story: Lexical access in heritage and non-heritage bilinguals. Second Language Research, 37(4). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Willems, R. M., Frank, S. L., Nijhof, A. D., Hagoort, P., & van den Bosch, A. (2016). Prediction during natural language comprehension. Cerebral Cortex, 26(6), 2506–2516. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Woumans, E., Ameloot, S., Keuleers, E., & Van Assche, E. (2019). The relationship between second language acquisition and nonverbal cognitive abilities. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 148(7), 1169–1177. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wu, J., Yang, J., Chen, M., Li, S., Zhang, Z., Kang, C., Ding, G., & Guo, T. (2019). Brain network reconfiguration for language and domain-general cognitive control in bilinguals. NeuroImage, 199, 454–465. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Yamasaki, B. L., Stocco, A., Liu, A. S., & Prat, C. S. (2019). Effects of bilingual language experience on basal ganglia computations: A dynamic causal modeling test of the conditional routing model. Brain and Language, 197, 104665. DOI logoGoogle Scholar