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Understanding how second language task-based performance can be raised is vital for progress with task-based approaches to instruction. The chapters in this volume all attempt to advance this understanding, and do so within a viewpoint which assumes limited attentional capacities and accounts for second language speaking based on Levelt's model of first language speaking. Six empirical chapters present original studies. They explore the topics of task planning, familiarity of information in a task, task repetition, task characteristics, and the effects of using post-task transcription. The studies interweave with and build upon each other, reflecting their conjoint focus on how second language learning memory and attention limitations shape their performance in using the target language. In the concluding chapter the accumulated findings across these studies are discussed in terms of the nature of preparation for a task, the role of task structure, the respective claims of the Tradeoff and Cognition Hypotheses, the role of selective attention, and the implications of the studies for pedagogy. The book is a central reference for students in psycholinguistics, second language acquisition, and task-based language teaching.
05
This volume, on the whole, presents a focused set of exceptionally well-designed studies that investigate task design variables and their major processing benefits for L2 speakers. A major contribution of this volume is Skehan’s proposed finer-grained definition for the construct of “planning,” which includes the traditional concept of planning, along with newer additions of readiness—task-internal properties, such as content familiarity and task. Moreover, the consistency of the CAF-lexis performance measures across the volume is a valuable model which, if adopted, could contribute to the validity and reliability of future studies. One area for improvement would be a fuller exploration of proficiency levels; the editor readily admits that this volume only contributes to our understanding of intermediate learners. In addition, the pedagogical implications are highly theoretical and would benefi t from more concrete examples. The volume assumes prior knowledge of several important theoretical concepts, such as serial versus parallel processing, rendering it somewhat inaccessible for a nonexpert audience. Nevertheless, this research significantly contributes to a theoretical understanding of task design, its impact on performance measures, and the manner in which L2 speakers can overcome the limitations of their finite cognitive resources.)
Julie B. Lake, Georgetown University, in Studies in Second Language Acquisition 37:1 (2014
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Chapter 1. The context for researching a processing perspective on task performance
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Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
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Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
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Chapter 2. On-line time pressure manipulations
L2 speaking performance under five types of planning and repetition conditions
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Zhan Wang
Wang, Zhan
Zhan
Wang
University of Pittsburgh
01
This chapter is concerned with an investigation of the underlying mechanisms of second language speaking. It reports on an experiment containing five different types of planning and repetition conditions, each relevant to certain processes and stages of speech production. The five conditions were two forms of strategic planning, two forms of on-line planning, and task repetition. Data were collected from 77 undergraduates (L1: Chinese and L2: English) doing a video narrative task in English. Speech samples were transcribed and coded. The study found: (1) strategic planning improved speech complexity and fluency, suggesting that support for the conceptualization stage in speech production helps language complexity and fluency; (2) on-line planning solely focusing on the formulation stage did not enhance speech complexity and accuracy, whereas on-line planning supported by an earlier opportunity to watch the video did, indicating a ‘meaning priority’ principle in speaking; (3) repetition enhanced speech complexity, fluency, and accuracy, suggesting that repetition is a robust way to improve speaking quality. Based on the results, an instructional model of L2 speech intervention is proposed. It argues that speech monitoring is the key to accuracy. Interventions at the speech formulation stage, which are often emphasized in pedagogy, work for accuracy only when speakers are instructed to attend to monitoring.
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Chapter 3. Task readiness
Theoretical framework and empirical evidence from topic familiarity, strategic planning, and proficiency levels
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Bui Hiu Yuet Gavin
Gavin, Bui Hiu Yuet
Bui Hiu Yuet
Gavin
Hang Seng Management College, Hong Kong
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The construct of planning, operationalized as strategic planning, rehearsal and on-line planning (Ellis 2009), has been much studied in the task-based language teaching literature. These forms of planning could be thought of as task-external readiness in which extra preparatory time is provided for learners to focus their attention on certain performance areas. This chapter proposes a theoretical framework of task-readiness as an extension to planning so that task research in planning could broaden its horizons from a task-external perspective to also include a task-internal perspective, that is, familiarity with aspects of a task.To examine the relationship between task-external and task internal readiness, this study explores the effects of topic familiarity (task-internal readiness), strategic planning (task-external readiness), and proficiency levels (an individual difference) in a 2 × 2 × 2 split-plot factorial design. The results show that both topic familiarity and strategic planning promoted more fluent language, but strategic planning was a stronger form of task-readiness as indicated by its effect sizes. In contrast, topic familiarity induced more accurate performance from the participants, while planning was associated with significantly higher complexity. Proficiency seemed to be positively related to formal accuracy rather than to fluency as higher proficiency participants always scored higher in accuracy and sometimes in complexity, but not so much in fluency. These findings suggest that though task-internal readiness and task-external readiness share common factors in rendering assistance to learners, they differ in their influence on various performance areas as well as the magnitude of the effects. All this lends support to the differentiation between task-external and task-internal readiness, and to the notion of task-readiness as a contextualizing framework for relevant task research. Based on the theoretical discussion and empirical results, pedagogical implications are also outlined in this chapter.
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Chapter 4. Self-reported planning behaviour and second language performance in narrative retelling
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Francine Pang
Pang, Francine
Francine
Pang
Macao Polytechnic Institute
2
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Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
Peter
Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
01
The second language planning literature has been mainly quantitative in nature, with very few qualitative investigations of planning (but see Ortega 2005). This chapter tries to redress that imbalance and reports on a study of what second language learners say they do when they plan. Participants were from a university in Macao, and completed a narrative task, followed by retrospective interviews. The interview data was coded, and a coding scheme emerged from this work which had some affinity to the Levelt (1989) model of speaking. As a result, this may be of use in other contexts. In addition, relationships between the self-reported planning behaviours and actual performance on the task were explored. This suggested some generalizations as to what planning behaviours are associated with higher performance, and, interestingly, which are associated with lower performance. The former tend to implicate the Conceptualiser stage of speech production and are specific and limited in range, whereas the latter are frequently concerned with over-ambition during the planning stage, a concern for form, and participants attempting to do too much.
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Chapter 5. Get it right in the end
The effects of post-task transcribing on learners’ oral performance
1
A01
Li Qian
Qian, Li
Li
Qian
Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, China
01
Given the small body of existing research concerning focus on form at the post-task stage in task-based language teaching, the present study uses a post-task transcribing condition as a focus on form activity and explores the effects of transcribing under various conditions. Eighty participants, divided into four experimental groups and one control group completed four tasks with a one-week interval between each task. Different experimental groups were assigned various post-task activities respectively. No post-task activity was adopted in the control group. Task performance was measured in terms of complexity, accuracy and lexical performance. The findings are multifaceted. First of all, the adoption of post-task transcribing, in general, was found to be efficient for different formal aspects of task performance. In the second place, pair-based transcribing led to more syntactically complex language, whereas the individual-based transcribing at the post-task stage led to an improvement in lexical sophistication. Thirdly, further revision after transcribing had mixed effects on accuracy and complexity. The findings are discussed in light of the concepts of noticing and attention, interaction theory and other related SLA theories. Based on the theoretical discussion, pedagogical implications are proposed.
10
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186
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Chapter 6. Structure, lexis, and time perspective
Influences on task performance
1
A01
Zhan Wang
Wang, Zhan
Zhan
Wang
University of Pittsburgh
2
A01
Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
Peter
Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
01
The Cognition and Tradeoff Hypotheses account for task performance in different ways. The former sees task complexity as the driver for higher accuracy and structural complexity whereas the latter, within the constraints of limited attentional capacities, sees performance as being accounted for through the interaction of influences from task characteristics and task conditions. This chapter reports on a study which contrasts these two accounts, manipulating task structure (as an influence on primarily accuracy, but secondarily complexity), vocabulary difficulty (as a disruptor of smooth processing during performance), and time perspective (as a method of operationalising task complexity). The results do simultaneously produce raised accuracy and complexity, but this is best accounted for through the separate contribution of task structure and a there-and-then perspective (analysed differently to that within the Cognition Hypothesis), rather than through greater task complexity. Vocabulary difficulty did not have the predicted impact. The results are discussed in terms of the Tradeoff and Cognition Hypotheses.
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Chapter 7. Structure and processing condition in video-based narrative retelling
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Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
Peter
Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
2
A01
Sabrina Shum
Shum, Sabrina
Sabrina
Shum
Chinese University of Hong Kong
01
This chapter reports on a study of video-based narrative retellings, in which the major variables are degree of structure and the nature of the processing conditions under which the retellings were done. The two variables were manipulated in a 4 × 4 design. Four Mr. Bean video clips were used, with different levels of structure, ranging from no structure to a clear, well organised problem-solution structure. In addition to a control group, there were two online processing conditions (opportunity to pause, and provision of a summary before the task), and one offline Watch-then-Tell condition. The results of the study show that two of the online conditions had some mitigating influence, that is, the opportunity to pause the video, and the provision of a summary before the video was seen. More structured narratives and less pressured processing conditions produced more accurate and more complex performances. The same influences lead to less end-of-clause pausing but more reformulations. The results are discussed in terms of the Levelt model of speaking, applied to second language performance.
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260
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Chapter 8. Limited attentional capacity, second language performance, and task-based pedagogy
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Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
Peter
Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
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261
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Author Biodata
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266
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Index
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JBENJAMINS
John Benjamins Publishing Company
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John Benjamins Publishing Company
Amsterdam/Philadelphia
NL
04
20140430
2014
John Benjamins
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WORLD
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Skehan, Peter
Peter
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St. Mary's University, Twickenham
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eng
278
xii
266
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v.2006
CJA
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JB Subject Scheme
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Applied linguistics
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LIN.LA
Language acquisition
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Language teaching
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Understanding how second language task-based performance can be raised is vital for progress with task-based approaches to instruction. The chapters in this volume all attempt to advance this understanding, and do so within a viewpoint which assumes limited attentional capacities and accounts for second language speaking based on Levelt's model of first language speaking. Six empirical chapters present original studies. They explore the topics of task planning, familiarity of information in a task, task repetition, task characteristics, and the effects of using post-task transcription. The studies interweave with and build upon each other, reflecting their conjoint focus on how second language learning memory and attention limitations shape their performance in using the target language. In the concluding chapter the accumulated findings across these studies are discussed in terms of the nature of preparation for a task, the role of task structure, the respective claims of the Tradeoff and Cognition Hypotheses, the role of selective attention, and the implications of the studies for pedagogy. The book is a central reference for students in psycholinguistics, second language acquisition, and task-based language teaching.
05
This volume, on the whole, presents a focused set of exceptionally well-designed studies that investigate task design variables and their major processing benefits for L2 speakers. A major contribution of this volume is Skehan’s proposed finer-grained definition for the construct of “planning,” which includes the traditional concept of planning, along with newer additions of readiness—task-internal properties, such as content familiarity and task. Moreover, the consistency of the CAF-lexis performance measures across the volume is a valuable model which, if adopted, could contribute to the validity and reliability of future studies. One area for improvement would be a fuller exploration of proficiency levels; the editor readily admits that this volume only contributes to our understanding of intermediate learners. In addition, the pedagogical implications are highly theoretical and would benefi t from more concrete examples. The volume assumes prior knowledge of several important theoretical concepts, such as serial versus parallel processing, rendering it somewhat inaccessible for a nonexpert audience. Nevertheless, this research significantly contributes to a theoretical understanding of task design, its impact on performance measures, and the manner in which L2 speakers can overcome the limitations of their finite cognitive resources.)
Julie B. Lake, Georgetown University, in Studies in Second Language Acquisition 37:1 (2014
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Chapter 1. The context for researching a processing perspective on task performance
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Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
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Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
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Chapter 2. On-line time pressure manipulations
L2 speaking performance under five types of planning and repetition conditions
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Zhan Wang
Wang, Zhan
Zhan
Wang
University of Pittsburgh
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This chapter is concerned with an investigation of the underlying mechanisms of second language speaking. It reports on an experiment containing five different types of planning and repetition conditions, each relevant to certain processes and stages of speech production. The five conditions were two forms of strategic planning, two forms of on-line planning, and task repetition. Data were collected from 77 undergraduates (L1: Chinese and L2: English) doing a video narrative task in English. Speech samples were transcribed and coded. The study found: (1) strategic planning improved speech complexity and fluency, suggesting that support for the conceptualization stage in speech production helps language complexity and fluency; (2) on-line planning solely focusing on the formulation stage did not enhance speech complexity and accuracy, whereas on-line planning supported by an earlier opportunity to watch the video did, indicating a ‘meaning priority’ principle in speaking; (3) repetition enhanced speech complexity, fluency, and accuracy, suggesting that repetition is a robust way to improve speaking quality. Based on the results, an instructional model of L2 speech intervention is proposed. It argues that speech monitoring is the key to accuracy. Interventions at the speech formulation stage, which are often emphasized in pedagogy, work for accuracy only when speakers are instructed to attend to monitoring.
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Chapter 3. Task readiness
Theoretical framework and empirical evidence from topic familiarity, strategic planning, and proficiency levels
1
A01
Bui Hiu Yuet Gavin
Gavin, Bui Hiu Yuet
Bui Hiu Yuet
Gavin
Hang Seng Management College, Hong Kong
01
The construct of planning, operationalized as strategic planning, rehearsal and on-line planning (Ellis 2009), has been much studied in the task-based language teaching literature. These forms of planning could be thought of as task-external readiness in which extra preparatory time is provided for learners to focus their attention on certain performance areas. This chapter proposes a theoretical framework of task-readiness as an extension to planning so that task research in planning could broaden its horizons from a task-external perspective to also include a task-internal perspective, that is, familiarity with aspects of a task.To examine the relationship between task-external and task internal readiness, this study explores the effects of topic familiarity (task-internal readiness), strategic planning (task-external readiness), and proficiency levels (an individual difference) in a 2 × 2 × 2 split-plot factorial design. The results show that both topic familiarity and strategic planning promoted more fluent language, but strategic planning was a stronger form of task-readiness as indicated by its effect sizes. In contrast, topic familiarity induced more accurate performance from the participants, while planning was associated with significantly higher complexity. Proficiency seemed to be positively related to formal accuracy rather than to fluency as higher proficiency participants always scored higher in accuracy and sometimes in complexity, but not so much in fluency. These findings suggest that though task-internal readiness and task-external readiness share common factors in rendering assistance to learners, they differ in their influence on various performance areas as well as the magnitude of the effects. All this lends support to the differentiation between task-external and task-internal readiness, and to the notion of task-readiness as a contextualizing framework for relevant task research. Based on the theoretical discussion and empirical results, pedagogical implications are also outlined in this chapter.
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Chapter 4. Self-reported planning behaviour and second language performance in narrative retelling
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Francine Pang
Pang, Francine
Francine
Pang
Macao Polytechnic Institute
2
A01
Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
Peter
Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
01
The second language planning literature has been mainly quantitative in nature, with very few qualitative investigations of planning (but see Ortega 2005). This chapter tries to redress that imbalance and reports on a study of what second language learners say they do when they plan. Participants were from a university in Macao, and completed a narrative task, followed by retrospective interviews. The interview data was coded, and a coding scheme emerged from this work which had some affinity to the Levelt (1989) model of speaking. As a result, this may be of use in other contexts. In addition, relationships between the self-reported planning behaviours and actual performance on the task were explored. This suggested some generalizations as to what planning behaviours are associated with higher performance, and, interestingly, which are associated with lower performance. The former tend to implicate the Conceptualiser stage of speech production and are specific and limited in range, whereas the latter are frequently concerned with over-ambition during the planning stage, a concern for form, and participants attempting to do too much.
10
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154
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Chapter 5. Get it right in the end
The effects of post-task transcribing on learners’ oral performance
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Li Qian
Qian, Li
Li
Qian
Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, China
01
Given the small body of existing research concerning focus on form at the post-task stage in task-based language teaching, the present study uses a post-task transcribing condition as a focus on form activity and explores the effects of transcribing under various conditions. Eighty participants, divided into four experimental groups and one control group completed four tasks with a one-week interval between each task. Different experimental groups were assigned various post-task activities respectively. No post-task activity was adopted in the control group. Task performance was measured in terms of complexity, accuracy and lexical performance. The findings are multifaceted. First of all, the adoption of post-task transcribing, in general, was found to be efficient for different formal aspects of task performance. In the second place, pair-based transcribing led to more syntactically complex language, whereas the individual-based transcribing at the post-task stage led to an improvement in lexical sophistication. Thirdly, further revision after transcribing had mixed effects on accuracy and complexity. The findings are discussed in light of the concepts of noticing and attention, interaction theory and other related SLA theories. Based on the theoretical discussion, pedagogical implications are proposed.
10
01
JB code
tblt.5.06wan
155
186
32
Article
8
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Chapter 6. Structure, lexis, and time perspective
Influences on task performance
1
A01
Zhan Wang
Wang, Zhan
Zhan
Wang
University of Pittsburgh
2
A01
Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
Peter
Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
01
The Cognition and Tradeoff Hypotheses account for task performance in different ways. The former sees task complexity as the driver for higher accuracy and structural complexity whereas the latter, within the constraints of limited attentional capacities, sees performance as being accounted for through the interaction of influences from task characteristics and task conditions. This chapter reports on a study which contrasts these two accounts, manipulating task structure (as an influence on primarily accuracy, but secondarily complexity), vocabulary difficulty (as a disruptor of smooth processing during performance), and time perspective (as a method of operationalising task complexity). The results do simultaneously produce raised accuracy and complexity, but this is best accounted for through the separate contribution of task structure and a there-and-then perspective (analysed differently to that within the Cognition Hypothesis), rather than through greater task complexity. Vocabulary difficulty did not have the predicted impact. The results are discussed in terms of the Tradeoff and Cognition Hypotheses.
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187
210
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9
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Chapter 7. Structure and processing condition in video-based narrative retelling
1
A01
Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
Peter
Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
2
A01
Sabrina Shum
Shum, Sabrina
Sabrina
Shum
Chinese University of Hong Kong
01
This chapter reports on a study of video-based narrative retellings, in which the major variables are degree of structure and the nature of the processing conditions under which the retellings were done. The two variables were manipulated in a 4 × 4 design. Four Mr. Bean video clips were used, with different levels of structure, ranging from no structure to a clear, well organised problem-solution structure. In addition to a control group, there were two online processing conditions (opportunity to pause, and provision of a summary before the task), and one offline Watch-then-Tell condition. The results of the study show that two of the online conditions had some mitigating influence, that is, the opportunity to pause the video, and the provision of a summary before the video was seen. More structured narratives and less pressured processing conditions produced more accurate and more complex performances. The same influences lead to less end-of-clause pausing but more reformulations. The results are discussed in terms of the Levelt model of speaking, applied to second language performance.
10
01
JB code
tblt.5.08ske
211
260
50
Article
10
01
Chapter 8. Limited attentional capacity, second language performance, and task-based pedagogy
1
A01
Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
Peter
Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
10
01
JB code
tblt.5.09aut
261
262
2
Article
11
01
Author Biodata
10
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JB code
tblt.5.10ind
263
266
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12
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Index
02
JBENJAMINS
John Benjamins Publishing Company
01
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20140430
2014
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9789027207265
13
2013050660
BC
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02
1877-346X
Task-Based Language Teaching
5
01
Processing Perspectives on Task Performance
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tblt.5
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https://benjamins.com
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https://benjamins.com/catalog/tblt.5
1
B01
Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
Peter
Skehan
St. Mary's University, Twickenham
01
eng
278
xii
266
FOR000000
v.2006
CJA
2
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.APPL
Applied linguistics
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.LA
Language acquisition
24
JB Subject Scheme
LIN.EDUC
Language teaching
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01
Understanding how second language task-based performance can be raised is vital for progress with task-based approaches to instruction. The chapters in this volume all attempt to advance this understanding, and do so within a viewpoint which assumes limited attentional capacities and accounts for second language speaking based on Levelt's model of first language speaking. Six empirical chapters present original studies. They explore the topics of task planning, familiarity of information in a task, task repetition, task characteristics, and the effects of using post-task transcription. The studies interweave with and build upon each other, reflecting their conjoint focus on how second language learning memory and attention limitations shape their performance in using the target language. In the concluding chapter the accumulated findings across these studies are discussed in terms of the nature of preparation for a task, the role of task structure, the respective claims of the Tradeoff and Cognition Hypotheses, the role of selective attention, and the implications of the studies for pedagogy. The book is a central reference for students in psycholinguistics, second language acquisition, and task-based language teaching.
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This volume, on the whole, presents a focused set of exceptionally well-designed studies that investigate task design variables and their major processing benefits for L2 speakers. A major contribution of this volume is Skehan’s proposed finer-grained definition for the construct of “planning,” which includes the traditional concept of planning, along with newer additions of readiness—task-internal properties, such as content familiarity and task. Moreover, the consistency of the CAF-lexis performance measures across the volume is a valuable model which, if adopted, could contribute to the validity and reliability of future studies. One area for improvement would be a fuller exploration of proficiency levels; the editor readily admits that this volume only contributes to our understanding of intermediate learners. In addition, the pedagogical implications are highly theoretical and would benefi t from more concrete examples. The volume assumes prior knowledge of several important theoretical concepts, such as serial versus parallel processing, rendering it somewhat inaccessible for a nonexpert audience. Nevertheless, this research significantly contributes to a theoretical understanding of task design, its impact on performance measures, and the manner in which L2 speakers can overcome the limitations of their finite cognitive resources.)
Julie B. Lake, Georgetown University, in Studies in Second Language Acquisition 37:1 (2014
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JB code
tblt.5.001sep
ix
x
2
Article
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Series editors’ preface to Volume 5
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tblt.5.002pre
xi
xii
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Article
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Preface
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JB code
tblt.5.01ske
1
26
26
Article
3
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Chapter 1. The context for researching a processing perspective on task performance
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A01
Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
Peter
Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
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01
JB code
tblt.5.02wan
27
62
36
Article
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Chapter 2. On-line time pressure manipulations
L2 speaking performance under five types of planning and repetition conditions
1
A01
Zhan Wang
Wang, Zhan
Zhan
Wang
University of Pittsburgh
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This chapter is concerned with an investigation of the underlying mechanisms of second language speaking. It reports on an experiment containing five different types of planning and repetition conditions, each relevant to certain processes and stages of speech production. The five conditions were two forms of strategic planning, two forms of on-line planning, and task repetition. Data were collected from 77 undergraduates (L1: Chinese and L2: English) doing a video narrative task in English. Speech samples were transcribed and coded. The study found: (1) strategic planning improved speech complexity and fluency, suggesting that support for the conceptualization stage in speech production helps language complexity and fluency; (2) on-line planning solely focusing on the formulation stage did not enhance speech complexity and accuracy, whereas on-line planning supported by an earlier opportunity to watch the video did, indicating a ‘meaning priority’ principle in speaking; (3) repetition enhanced speech complexity, fluency, and accuracy, suggesting that repetition is a robust way to improve speaking quality. Based on the results, an instructional model of L2 speech intervention is proposed. It argues that speech monitoring is the key to accuracy. Interventions at the speech formulation stage, which are often emphasized in pedagogy, work for accuracy only when speakers are instructed to attend to monitoring.
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JB code
tblt.5.03gav
63
94
32
Article
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Chapter 3. Task readiness
Theoretical framework and empirical evidence from topic familiarity, strategic planning, and proficiency levels
1
A01
Bui Hiu Yuet Gavin
Gavin, Bui Hiu Yuet
Bui Hiu Yuet
Gavin
Hang Seng Management College, Hong Kong
01
The construct of planning, operationalized as strategic planning, rehearsal and on-line planning (Ellis 2009), has been much studied in the task-based language teaching literature. These forms of planning could be thought of as task-external readiness in which extra preparatory time is provided for learners to focus their attention on certain performance areas. This chapter proposes a theoretical framework of task-readiness as an extension to planning so that task research in planning could broaden its horizons from a task-external perspective to also include a task-internal perspective, that is, familiarity with aspects of a task.To examine the relationship between task-external and task internal readiness, this study explores the effects of topic familiarity (task-internal readiness), strategic planning (task-external readiness), and proficiency levels (an individual difference) in a 2 × 2 × 2 split-plot factorial design. The results show that both topic familiarity and strategic planning promoted more fluent language, but strategic planning was a stronger form of task-readiness as indicated by its effect sizes. In contrast, topic familiarity induced more accurate performance from the participants, while planning was associated with significantly higher complexity. Proficiency seemed to be positively related to formal accuracy rather than to fluency as higher proficiency participants always scored higher in accuracy and sometimes in complexity, but not so much in fluency. These findings suggest that though task-internal readiness and task-external readiness share common factors in rendering assistance to learners, they differ in their influence on various performance areas as well as the magnitude of the effects. All this lends support to the differentiation between task-external and task-internal readiness, and to the notion of task-readiness as a contextualizing framework for relevant task research. Based on the theoretical discussion and empirical results, pedagogical implications are also outlined in this chapter.
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tblt.5.04pan
95
128
34
Article
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Chapter 4. Self-reported planning behaviour and second language performance in narrative retelling
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A01
Francine Pang
Pang, Francine
Francine
Pang
Macao Polytechnic Institute
2
A01
Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
Peter
Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
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The second language planning literature has been mainly quantitative in nature, with very few qualitative investigations of planning (but see Ortega 2005). This chapter tries to redress that imbalance and reports on a study of what second language learners say they do when they plan. Participants were from a university in Macao, and completed a narrative task, followed by retrospective interviews. The interview data was coded, and a coding scheme emerged from this work which had some affinity to the Levelt (1989) model of speaking. As a result, this may be of use in other contexts. In addition, relationships between the self-reported planning behaviours and actual performance on the task were explored. This suggested some generalizations as to what planning behaviours are associated with higher performance, and, interestingly, which are associated with lower performance. The former tend to implicate the Conceptualiser stage of speech production and are specific and limited in range, whereas the latter are frequently concerned with over-ambition during the planning stage, a concern for form, and participants attempting to do too much.
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JB code
tblt.5.05qia
129
154
26
Article
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Chapter 5. Get it right in the end
The effects of post-task transcribing on learners’ oral performance
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A01
Li Qian
Qian, Li
Li
Qian
Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, China
01
Given the small body of existing research concerning focus on form at the post-task stage in task-based language teaching, the present study uses a post-task transcribing condition as a focus on form activity and explores the effects of transcribing under various conditions. Eighty participants, divided into four experimental groups and one control group completed four tasks with a one-week interval between each task. Different experimental groups were assigned various post-task activities respectively. No post-task activity was adopted in the control group. Task performance was measured in terms of complexity, accuracy and lexical performance. The findings are multifaceted. First of all, the adoption of post-task transcribing, in general, was found to be efficient for different formal aspects of task performance. In the second place, pair-based transcribing led to more syntactically complex language, whereas the individual-based transcribing at the post-task stage led to an improvement in lexical sophistication. Thirdly, further revision after transcribing had mixed effects on accuracy and complexity. The findings are discussed in light of the concepts of noticing and attention, interaction theory and other related SLA theories. Based on the theoretical discussion, pedagogical implications are proposed.
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tblt.5.06wan
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186
32
Article
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Chapter 6. Structure, lexis, and time perspective
Influences on task performance
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A01
Zhan Wang
Wang, Zhan
Zhan
Wang
University of Pittsburgh
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A01
Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
Peter
Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
01
The Cognition and Tradeoff Hypotheses account for task performance in different ways. The former sees task complexity as the driver for higher accuracy and structural complexity whereas the latter, within the constraints of limited attentional capacities, sees performance as being accounted for through the interaction of influences from task characteristics and task conditions. This chapter reports on a study which contrasts these two accounts, manipulating task structure (as an influence on primarily accuracy, but secondarily complexity), vocabulary difficulty (as a disruptor of smooth processing during performance), and time perspective (as a method of operationalising task complexity). The results do simultaneously produce raised accuracy and complexity, but this is best accounted for through the separate contribution of task structure and a there-and-then perspective (analysed differently to that within the Cognition Hypothesis), rather than through greater task complexity. Vocabulary difficulty did not have the predicted impact. The results are discussed in terms of the Tradeoff and Cognition Hypotheses.
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JB code
tblt.5.07ske
187
210
24
Article
9
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Chapter 7. Structure and processing condition in video-based narrative retelling
1
A01
Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
Peter
Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
2
A01
Sabrina Shum
Shum, Sabrina
Sabrina
Shum
Chinese University of Hong Kong
01
This chapter reports on a study of video-based narrative retellings, in which the major variables are degree of structure and the nature of the processing conditions under which the retellings were done. The two variables were manipulated in a 4 × 4 design. Four Mr. Bean video clips were used, with different levels of structure, ranging from no structure to a clear, well organised problem-solution structure. In addition to a control group, there were two online processing conditions (opportunity to pause, and provision of a summary before the task), and one offline Watch-then-Tell condition. The results of the study show that two of the online conditions had some mitigating influence, that is, the opportunity to pause the video, and the provision of a summary before the video was seen. More structured narratives and less pressured processing conditions produced more accurate and more complex performances. The same influences lead to less end-of-clause pausing but more reformulations. The results are discussed in terms of the Levelt model of speaking, applied to second language performance.
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tblt.5.08ske
211
260
50
Article
10
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Chapter 8. Limited attentional capacity, second language performance, and task-based pedagogy
1
A01
Peter Skehan
Skehan, Peter
Peter
Skehan
St. Mary’s University, Twickenham
10
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JB code
tblt.5.09aut
261
262
2
Article
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Author Biodata
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JB code
tblt.5.10ind
263
266
4
Article
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Index
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