6018211 03 01 01 JB code JB John Benjamins Publishing Company 01 JB code TSL 117 GE 15 9789027265975 06 10.1075/tsl.117 13 2017021564 00 EA E133 10 01 JB code TSL 02 JB code 0167-7373 02 117.00 01 02 Typological Studies in Language Typological Studies in Language 01 01 Similative and Equative Constructions Similative and Equative Constructions 1 B01 01 JB code 769182055 Yvonne Treis Treis, Yvonne Yvonne Treis LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 2 B01 01 JB code 76182056 Martine Vanhove Vanhove, Martine Martine Vanhove LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 01 eng 11 443 03 03 vi 03 00 437 03 24 JB code LIN.SEMAN Semantics 24 JB code LIN.SYNTAX Syntax 24 JB code LIN.THEOR Theoretical linguistics 24 JB code LIN.TYP Typology 10 LAN009060 12 CFK 01 06 02 00 The fifteen contributions assembled in this volume study similative and equative constructions in typologically and genetically distant languages, albeit with a focus on Africa, and from a range of perspectives. 03 00 While comparative constructions have been extensively studied in the past decades, the expression of equality and similarity has so far attracted little attention in the typological literature. The fifteen contributions assembled in this volume study similative and equative constructions in typologically and genetically distant languages, albeit with a focus on Africa, and from a range of perspectives. Purely synchronically oriented case studies are supplemented by contributions that also shed light on the diachronic development of similative and equative constructions in language contact situations. Sources of similative morphemes and lexically expressed concepts of likeness are examined, and little-known multifunctionality patterns and grammaticalisation targets of similative morphemes – such as purpose clause markers, modality morphemes and markers of glottonyms – are discussed. Based on a sample of 119 languages worldwide, a new typology of equative constructions is proposed. The book should be of interest to typologists, semanticists, specialists of grammaticalization, historical linguistics and syntax. 01 00 03 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/475/tsl.117.png 01 01 D502 https://benjamins.com/covers/475_jpg/9789027206985.jpg 01 01 D504 https://benjamins.com/covers/475_tif/9789027206985.tif 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/1200_front/tsl.117.hb.png 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/125/tsl.117.png 02 00 03 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/1200_back/tsl.117.hb.png 03 00 03 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/3d_web/tsl.117.hb.png 01 01 JB code tsl.117.01tre 06 10.1075/tsl.117.01tre 2 5 4 Chapter 1 01 04 Introduction Introduction 1 A01 01 JB code 454291082 Yvonne Treis Treis, Yvonne Yvonne Treis LLACAN (CNRS x INALCO x Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 2 A01 01 JB code 718291083 Martine Vanhove Vanhove, Martine Martine Vanhove LLACAN (CNRS x INALCO x Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 01 01 JB code tsl.117.p1 06 10.1075/tsl.117.p1 Section header 2 01 04 Part I. Typology and grammaticalisation Part I. Typology and grammaticalisation 01 01 JB code tsl.117.02has 06 10.1075/tsl.117.02has 9 32 24 Chapter 3 01 04 Chapter 1. Equative constructions in world-wide perspective Chapter 1. Equative constructions in world-wide perspective 1 A01 01 JB code 66291085 Martin Haspelmath Haspelmath, Martin Martin Haspelmath Universität Leipzig 2 A01 01 JB code 583419628 The Leipzig Equative Constructions Team The Leipzig Equative Constructions Team The Leipzig Equative Constructions Team Universität Leipzig 01 01 JB code tsl.117.03sch 06 10.1075/tsl.117.03sch 33 77 45 Chapter 4 01 04 Chapter 2. Toward a cognitive typology oflike-expressions Chapter 2. Toward a cognitive typology oflike-expressions 1 A01 01 JB code 560291086 Wolfgang Schulze Schulze, Wolfgang Wolfgang Schulze Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München 01 01 JB code tsl.117.04cre 06 10.1075/tsl.117.04cre 79 89 11 Chapter 5 01 04 Chapter 3. Similarity, suitability, and non-epistemic modalities (volitionality, ability, and obligation) Chapter 3. Similarity, suitability, and non-epistemic modalities (volitionality, ability, and obligation) 1 A01 01 JB code 741291087 Denis Creissels Creissels, Denis Denis Creissels DDL, Université Lyon 2, CNRS 01 01 JB code tsl.117.05tre 06 10.1075/tsl.117.05tre 91 142 52 Chapter 6 01 04 Chapter 4. Similative morphemes as purpose clause markers in Ethiopia and beyond Chapter 4. Similative morphemes as purpose clause markers in Ethiopia and beyond 1 A01 01 JB code 592291088 Yvonne Treis Treis, Yvonne Yvonne Treis LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 01 01 JB code tsl.117.06kon 06 10.1075/tsl.117.06kon 143 164 22 Chapter 7 01 04 Chapter 5. The deictic identification of similarity Chapter 5. The deictic identification of similarity 1 A01 01 JB code 455291089 Ekkehard König König, Ekkehard Ekkehard König Freie Universität Berlin 01 01 JB code tsl.117.p2 06 10.1075/tsl.117.p2 Section header 8 01 04 Part II. Case studies from around the world Part II. Case studies from around the world 01 01 JB code tsl.117.07car 06 10.1075/tsl.117.07car 167 188 22 Chapter 9 01 04 Chapter 6. Comparison, similarity and simulation in Zaar, a Chadic language of Nigeria Chapter 6. Comparison, similarity and simulation in Zaar, a Chadic language of Nigeria 1 A01 01 JB code 718291090 Bernard Caron Caron, Bernard Bernard Caron IFRA, USR 3336, CNRS, Ibadan, Nigeria 01 01 JB code tsl.117.08van 06 10.1075/tsl.117.08van 189 211 23 Chapter 10 01 04 Chapter 7. Similative, equative, and comparative constructions in Beja (North-Cushitic) Chapter 7. Similative, equative, and comparative constructions in Beja (North-Cushitic) 1 A01 01 JB code 410291091 Martine Vanhove Vanhove, Martine Martine Vanhove LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 01 01 JB code tsl.117.09rou 06 10.1075/tsl.117.09rou 213 237 25 Chapter 11 01 04 Chapter 8. Expressing comparison in Gbaya, a Ubangian language of the Central African Republic Chapter 8. Expressing comparison in Gbaya, a Ubangian language of the Central African Republic 1 A01 01 JB code 293291092 Paulette Roulon-Doko Roulon-Doko, Paulette Paulette Roulon-Doko LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 01 01 JB code tsl.117.10boy 06 10.1075/tsl.117.10boy 239 258 20 Chapter 12 01 04 Chapter 9. Expressing similarity in Yulu and other Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi languages (Central Africa) Chapter 9. Expressing similarity in Yulu and other Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi languages (Central Africa) 1 A01 01 JB code 530291093 Pascal Boyeldieu Boyeldieu, Pascal Pascal Boyeldieu LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 01 01 JB code tsl.117.11yli 06 10.1075/tsl.117.11yli 259 290 32 Chapter 13 01 04 Chapter 10. Similarity, equality and the like in North Saami Chapter 10. Similarity, equality and the like in North Saami 1 A01 01 JB code 416291094 Jussi Ylikoski Ylikoski, Jussi Jussi Ylikoski UiT The Arctic University of Norway/ University of Oulu, Finland 01 01 JB code tsl.117.12jen 06 10.1075/tsl.117.12jen 291 319 29 Chapter 14 01 04 Chapter 11. Comparative, similative, and equative constructions in Mon Chapter 11. Comparative, similative, and equative constructions in Mon 01 04 Form, function, and development Form, function, and development 1 A01 01 JB code 308291095 Mathias Jenny Jenny, Mathias Mathias Jenny Universität Zürich 01 01 JB code tsl.117.13cha 06 10.1075/tsl.117.13cha 321 337 17 Chapter 15 01 04 Chapter 12. Multifunctionality and polysemy of the similative marker =kanin Pesh Chapter 12. Multifunctionality and polysemy of the similative marker =kánin Pesh 1 A01 01 JB code 319291096 Claudine Chamoreau Chamoreau, Claudine Claudine Chamoreau CEMCA"/"SEDYL-CELIA (CNRS) 01 01 JB code tsl.117.p3 06 10.1075/tsl.117.p3 Section header 16 01 04 Part III. Similative constructions and language contact Part III. Similative constructions and language contact 01 04 The Ethiopian Language Area The Ethiopian Language Area 01 01 JB code tsl.117.14zau 06 10.1075/tsl.117.14zau 341 357 17 Chapter 17 01 04 Chapter 13. Similative morphemes and their grammaticalisations in Yemsa Chapter 13. Similative morphemes and their grammaticalisations in Yemsa 1 A01 01 JB code 587291097 Silvia Zaugg-Coretti Zaugg-Coretti, Silvia Silvia Zaugg-Coretti Universität Zürich 01 01 JB code tsl.117.15dar 06 10.1075/tsl.117.15dar 359 385 27 Chapter 18 01 04 Chapter 14. The morpheme L(a)ngain Xamtanga Chapter 14. The morpheme ‑(ä)ŋäin Xamtanga 01 04 Functions and grammaticalisation targets Functions and grammaticalisation targets 1 A01 01 JB code 308291098 Chloé Darmon Darmon, Chloé Chloé Darmon Addis Ababa University 01 01 JB code tsl.117.16cra 06 10.1075/tsl.117.16cra 387 417 31 Chapter 19 01 04 Chapter 15. Similarity and related functions in Libido Chapter 15. Similarity and related functions in Libido 1 A01 01 JB code 330291099 Joachim Crass Crass, Joachim Joachim Crass Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz 01 01 JB code tsl.117.lin 06 10.1075/tsl.117.lin 419 422 4 Miscellaneous 20 01 04 Language index Language index 01 01 JB code tsl.117.nin 06 10.1075/tsl.117.nin 423 427 5 Miscellaneous 21 01 04 Name Index Name Index 01 01 JB code tsl.117.sin 06 10.1075/tsl.117.sin 429 437 9 Miscellaneous 22 01 04 Subject index Subject index 01 JB code JBENJAMINS John Benjamins Publishing Company 01 01 JB code JB John Benjamins Publishing Company 01 https://benjamins.com Amsterdam NL 00 John Benjamins Publishing Company Marketing Department / Karin Plijnaar, Pieter Lamers onix@benjamins.nl 04 01 00 20170531 C 2017 John Benjamins D 2017 John Benjamins 02 WORLD 13 15 9789027206985 WORLD 03 01 JB 17 Google 03 https://play.google.com/store/books 21 01 00 Unqualified price 00 99.00 EUR 01 00 Unqualified price 00 83.00 GBP 01 00 Unqualified price 00 149.00 USD 129011258 03 01 01 JB code JB John Benjamins Publishing Company 01 JB code TSL 117 Hb 15 9789027206985 06 10.1075/tsl.117 13 2016057185 00 BB 08 935 gr 10 01 JB code TSL 02 0167-7373 02 117.00 01 02 Typological Studies in Language Typological Studies in Language 01 01 Similative and Equative Constructions A cross-linguistic perspective Similative and Equative Constructions: A cross-linguistic perspective 1 B01 01 JB code 769182055 Yvonne Treis Treis, Yvonne Yvonne Treis LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/769182055 2 B01 01 JB code 76182056 Martine Vanhove Vanhove, Martine Martine Vanhove LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/76182056 01 eng 11 443 03 03 vi 03 00 437 03 01 23 415 03 2017 P293 04 Grammar, Comparative and general--Coordinate constructions. 04 Grammar, Comparative and general--Grammaticalization. 04 Contrastive linguistics. 04 Typology (Linguistics) 10 LAN009060 12 CFK 24 JB code LIN.SEMAN Semantics 24 JB code LIN.SYNTAX Syntax 24 JB code LIN.THEOR Theoretical linguistics 24 JB code LIN.TYP Typology 01 06 02 00 The fifteen contributions assembled in this volume study similative and equative constructions in typologically and genetically distant languages, albeit with a focus on Africa, and from a range of perspectives. 03 00 While comparative constructions have been extensively studied in the past decades, the expression of equality and similarity has so far attracted little attention in the typological literature. The fifteen contributions assembled in this volume study similative and equative constructions in typologically and genetically distant languages, albeit with a focus on Africa, and from a range of perspectives. Purely synchronically oriented case studies are supplemented by contributions that also shed light on the diachronic development of similative and equative constructions in language contact situations. Sources of similative morphemes and lexically expressed concepts of likeness are examined, and little-known multifunctionality patterns and grammaticalisation targets of similative morphemes – such as purpose clause markers, modality morphemes and markers of glottonyms – are discussed. Based on a sample of 119 languages worldwide, a new typology of equative constructions is proposed. The book should be of interest to typologists, semanticists, specialists of grammaticalization, historical linguistics and syntax. 01 00 03 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/475/tsl.117.png 01 01 D502 https://benjamins.com/covers/475_jpg/9789027206985.jpg 01 01 D504 https://benjamins.com/covers/475_tif/9789027206985.tif 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/1200_front/tsl.117.hb.png 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/125/tsl.117.png 02 00 03 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/1200_back/tsl.117.hb.png 03 00 03 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/3d_web/tsl.117.hb.png 01 01 JB code tsl.117.01tre 06 10.1075/tsl.117.01tre 1 6 6 Chapter 1 01 04 Introduction Introduction 1 A01 01 JB code 454291082 Yvonne Treis Treis, Yvonne Yvonne Treis LLACAN (CNRS x INALCO x Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/454291082 2 A01 01 JB code 718291083 Martine Vanhove Vanhove, Martine Martine Vanhove LLACAN (CNRS x INALCO x Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/718291083 01 01 JB code tsl.117.p1 06 10.1075/tsl.117.p1 Section header 2 01 04 Part I. Typology and grammaticalisation Part I. Typology and grammaticalisation 01 01 JB code tsl.117.02has 06 10.1075/tsl.117.02has 9 32 24 Chapter 3 01 04 Chapter 1. Equative constructions in world-wide perspective Chapter 1. Equative constructions in world-wide perspective 1 A01 01 JB code 66291085 Martin Haspelmath Haspelmath, Martin Martin Haspelmath Universität Leipzig 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/66291085 2 A01 01 JB code 583419628 The Leipzig Equative Constructions Team The Leipzig Equative Constructions Team The Leipzig Equative Constructions Team Universität Leipzig 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/583419628 03 00

In this paper, we report on a world-wide study of equative constructions (‘A is as big as B’) in a convenience sample of 119 languages. From earlier work, it has been known that European languages often have equative constructions based on adverbial relative pronouns that otherwise express degree or manner (‘how’, ‘as’), but we find that this type is rare outside Europe. We divide the constructions that we found into six primary types, four of which have closely corresponding types of comparative constructions (‘A is bigger than B’). An equative construction often consists of five components: a comparee (‘A’), a degree-marker (‘as’), a parameter (‘is big’), a standard-marker (‘as’), and a standard (‘B’).

Most frequently, the parameter is the main predicate and the equative sense is expressed by a special standard-marker. But many languages also have a degree-marker, so that we get a construction of the English and French type. Another possibility is for the equality sense to be expressed by a transitive ‘equal’ (or ‘reach’) verb, which may be the main predicate or a secondary predicate. And finally, since the equative construction is semantically symmetrical, it is also possible to “unify” the parameter and the standard in the subject position (‘A and B are equally tall’, or ‘A and B are equal in height’). But no language has only a degree-marker, leaving the standard unmarked. Finally, we note some word order correlations.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.03sch 06 10.1075/tsl.117.03sch 33 78 46 Chapter 4 01 04 Chapter 2. Toward a cognitive typology oflike-expressions Chapter 2. Toward a cognitive typology oflike-expressions 1 A01 01 JB code 560291086 Wolfgang Schulze Schulze, Wolfgang Wolfgang Schulze Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/560291086 03 00

From a typological point of view, expressions of likeness are marked for a seemingly heterogeneous set of corresponding linguistic representations, ranging for instance from locative-based case marking strategies to lexical expressions and constructional patterns. I argue thatlike-concepts represent stative or processual/dynamic transitive relational units and hence entail strong ‘verbal’ features. This aspect links the question of the conceptual background oflike-concepts to the domain of word classes. Accordingly, the semantics oflike-expressions is conditioned both by the underlying conceptual source domain and the syntactic role the expression (lexeme or morpheme) takes up in alike-relation. In this sense, the paper distinguishes intraclausal verbal patterns (she equals/is like a queen) from clause combining patterns that relate to event images (she swims like a fish < *she swims like a fish swims). In addition,like-concepts can show up as relational concepts within NPs or as adverbial elements. Such syntactically and in parts pragmatically controlled features have a strong impact on the semantic instantiation oflike-concepts that by themselves form a subtype of projection strategies. In fact,like-concepts can be scaled according to the degree to which the domain of theotheris mapped onto the identity of the referent. Such a scale may start from the following model:similar toY>alike/equal toY >become/changed toY >temporarily beY >beY. Contrary to identification concepts,like-concepts do not signal the inclusion of a referential unit into a specific set or the referential specification of given ‘properties’. Rather,like-concepts are projection strategies that relate a referential unit to properties of another referential unit in a way that ‘disguises’ or ‘masks’ the trajectory unit with the help of properties typical for the landmark unit. This relates them tobecome-concepts (temporary transfiguration),motion(‘X moves into the region of Y thus acquiring properties of Y’) andimaging/imitation(‘X is the picture of Y’, ‘X mirrors Y’ etc.). In addition, disguising processes can be directly expressed by referring to the domain of gestalt/shape. This model is probably related to cultural practices of temporary transfiguration.

The chapter elaborates these conceptual source domains from the point of view of diachronic lexical typology. Data used to illustrate these domains are mainly taken from Indo-European languages supplemented by data from non-Indo-European, mainly Semitic, languages. Additionally, the findings are evaluated with the help of data stemming from basically two East Caucasian languages, namely Udi and its earlier relative Caucasian Albanian. The results of the second part of the paper elaborate the proposed (diachronic) semantic map oflike-concepts that may serve as a preliminary template when searching for features of both Universal Cognitive Semantics and Cultural Linguistics with respect to the typology oflike-concepts.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.04cre 06 10.1075/tsl.117.04cre 79 90 12 Chapter 5 01 04 Chapter 3. Similarity, suitability, and non-epistemic modalities (volitionality, ability, and obligation) Chapter 3. Similarity, suitability, and non-epistemic modalities (volitionality, ability, and obligation) 1 A01 01 JB code 741291087 Denis Creissels Creissels, Denis Denis Creissels DDL, Université Lyon 2, CNRS 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/741291087 03 00

This article shows that verbs expressing similarity between two entities are not only found in constructions expressing the kind of epistemic modality expressed in English by means of the verbseem, but may also be involved in polysemy patterns including the expression of other types of modalities (volitionality, ability, or obligation). Three examples of African languages illustrating this type of polysemy pattern are first presented. Then, the article examines the historical developments that led from a Proto-Germanic root*līk-‘(as a noun) form, (as a verb) be of the same form’ to Tok Pisinlaik‘want’. It is followed by a discussion of the possible etymological link between a Bantu verb reconstructed as*ngà‘be like’ and a Bantu modality marker reconstructable as*nga. The conclusion proposes a scenario according to which verbs originally expressing similarity between two concrete entities may acquire uses in which they express non-epistemic modalities.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.05tre 06 10.1075/tsl.117.05tre 91 142 52 Chapter 6 01 04 Chapter 4. Similative morphemes as purpose clause markers in Ethiopia and beyond Chapter 4. Similative morphemes as purpose clause markers in Ethiopia and beyond 1 A01 01 JB code 592291088 Yvonne Treis Treis, Yvonne Yvonne Treis LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/592291088 03 00

In more than 30 languages spoken at the Horn of Africa, a similative morpheme ‘like’ or a noun ‘manner’ or ‘type’ is used as a marker of purpose clauses. The paper first elaborates on the many functions of the enclitic morpheme=g‘manner’ in Kambaata (Highland East Cushitic), which is used, among others, as a marker of the standard in similative and equative comparison (‘like’, ‘as’), of temporal clauses of immediate anteriority (‘as soon as’), of complement clauses (‘that’) and, most notably, of purpose clauses (‘in order to’). The second part of the paper gives a detailed account of the distribution of the use of ‘like’, ‘manner’ or ‘type’ as a purpose clause marker in Afroasiatic and Nilo-Saharan languages of the Horn of Africa. Similative-purpose multifunctionality, which is cross-linguistically rare, concentrates especially in central areas of Ethiopia and can be assumed to be the result of language contact between certain Cushitic, Ethio-Semitic and Omotic languages.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.06kon 06 10.1075/tsl.117.06kon 143 164 22 Chapter 7 01 04 Chapter 5. The deictic identification of similarity Chapter 5. The deictic identification of similarity 1 A01 01 JB code 455291089 Ekkehard König König, Ekkehard Ekkehard König Freie Universität Berlin 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/455291089 03 00

Starting out from the observation that comparisons and assessments of similarity and difference are fundamental cognitive processes and play an important role in a variety of human activities, this article shows that the most basic verbal means for the expression of similarity are demonstratives of manner, quality and degree (Frenchainsi,tel,tellement). It is shown that the gestural (exophoric) use of such demonstratives provides the source of a wide variety of constructions in a wide variety of languages, so that these demonstratives are instantiations of a semantic category of “similatives” par excellence. Building on earlier work by the same author, the article analyses and describes the wide-spread processes of grammaticalisation leading from exophorically used demonstratives to various types of anaphors, to quotatives, conjunctional adverbs, comparative constructions and to affirmative or approximative particles. The illustrations provided for these pervasive changes are mainly taken from European languages, but occasionally also enriched by exemplification from languages outside of Europe.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.p2 06 10.1075/tsl.117.p2 Section header 8 01 04 Part II. Case studies from around the world Part II. Case studies from around the world 01 01 JB code tsl.117.07car 06 10.1075/tsl.117.07car 167 188 22 Chapter 9 01 04 Chapter 6. Comparison, similarity and simulation in Zaar, a Chadic language of Nigeria Chapter 6. Comparison, similarity and simulation in Zaar, a Chadic language of Nigeria 1 A01 01 JB code 718291090 Bernard Caron Caron, Bernard Bernard Caron IFRA, USR 3336, CNRS, Ibadan, Nigeria 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/718291090 03 00

This paper is a corpus-based typological survey of the linguistic expression of comparison (equative, comparative, similative, simulative), in Zaar, a Chadic language spoken in the south of Bauchi State, in Northern Nigeria. After a presentation of Zaar and its typological characteristics, the paper shows how the equative (comparison of equality), similative (comparison of similarity) and simulative (pretence clauses) structures are based on the prepositionɗan‘like’ whereas the comparative structure centers on the verbmop‘surpass’. The morphosyntactic status of the prepositionɗan‘like’ is discussed in relation with the functions it takes outside the expression of comparison, in clause subordination (temporal adjuncts, relative clauses) and information structure (topicalisation). The last section shows how the morphemesɗan‘like’, the quotativetuand the specific particlekuform various combinations to express simulation. The conclusion summarizes the main properties of the expression of comparison in Zaar as follows: The comparison of superiority uses two competing verbal strategies, a serial verb construction strategy and a ditransitive strategy. The equative in Zaar does not have a parameter marker, and the comparative predicate which includes the parameter is a quality verb. Since similitude and equality comparison share the same syntactic frame in Zaar, their difference is dependent on the scalar nature of the comparative predicate. There is no difference in Zaar between specific and general equatives or similatives. The same equative/similative structure based on the prepositionɗanis used for other functions than the strict expression of similarity, i.e. substitution (‘instead of’), topicalization, role phrases and accord clauses, temporal adjuncts, relativization. From a typological point of view, the expression of similarity in Zaar is different from the “Standard Average European” equivalent. The three main differences are (i) the verbal nature of quality in Zaar; (ii) the absence of a parameter marker; (iii) the non-relative/interrogative base of the standard marker, which in Zaar is a preposition expressing manner. More generally, Zaar behaves as expected from a head-initial language, viz. the order parameter – standard marker – standard is respected.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.08van 06 10.1075/tsl.117.08van 189 212 24 Chapter 10 01 04 Chapter 7. Similative, equative, and comparative constructions in Beja (North-Cushitic) Chapter 7. Similative, equative, and comparative constructions in Beja (North-Cushitic) 1 A01 01 JB code 410291091 Martine Vanhove Vanhove, Martine Martine Vanhove LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/410291091 03 00

This paper presents an overview of the morphosyntax of comparative, equative and similative constructions in Beja, a Cushitic language spoken in Sudan. It also discusses their relevance for current typological models and the extent to which they are at variance with the existing literature (Stassen 1985;Haspelmath & Buchholz 1998;Henkelmann 2006). The paper also proposes hypotheses regarding the origin of Beja comparative and similative morphemes, an issue which is problematic. A section is dedicated to the study of the extensions of the morphemes concerned to other functional domains, such as functives, pretence clauses, similes and accord clauses, causal and adverbial clauses, within the background ofCreissels’s (2014)approach to the polysemy and multifunctionality of these markers. Comparisons with other Cushitic languages are also provided when necessary.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.09rou 06 10.1075/tsl.117.09rou 213 238 26 Chapter 11 01 04 Chapter 8. Expressing comparison in Gbaya, a Ubangian language of the Central African Republic Chapter 8. Expressing comparison in Gbaya, a Ubangian language of the Central African Republic 1 A01 01 JB code 293291092 Paulette Roulon-Doko Roulon-Doko, Paulette Paulette Roulon-Doko LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/293291092 03 00

Gbaya, an Ubangian language of Central Africa, shows that all types of comparison are qualitative expressions and not quantitative ones involving a parameter of gradation or degree. Following the theoretical framework proposed inFuchs (2014), this chapter first presents the use of the dedicated similative circumpositionhé … gá. It expresses, in different contexts, a way of doing (modus faciendi) or a way of being (modus essendi). It frames a nominal phrase and can also be used as a subordinating morpheme to frame a clause. Then, the comparison of equality is studied and analysed as a special case of similative comparison, in which the reciprocal morpheme is added to the circumposition. Another construction of comparison of equality, which does not involve the circumposition, also uses the reciprocal and is formed with two verbs‘reach’ andɲɛm‘suit’. As for the comparison of superior inequality, it is shown that it has a dedicated construction, different from the similative and equative constructions. It is formed with a verb sequence including the verbgan‘exceed’. Comparison of inferior inequality does not exist. Finally, the functive morpheme is distinct from the similative one.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.10boy 06 10.1075/tsl.117.10boy 239 258 20 Chapter 12 01 04 Chapter 9. Expressing similarity in Yulu and other Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi languages (Central Africa) Chapter 9. Expressing similarity in Yulu and other Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi languages (Central Africa) 1 A01 01 JB code 530291093 Pascal Boyeldieu Boyeldieu, Pascal Pascal Boyeldieu LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/530291093 03 00

Yulu – a Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi (SBB) language of the Central African Republic and South Sudan – expresses similarity by means of two related morphemes, namelybə̏ ~ bȅ‘like, as’, andbȅndē‘like, as, as if’. The second, presumably a compound form has a wider use: it may introduce a proper name, a personal pronoun, or a demonstrative substitute. It can also mark verbal clauses. The first part of the paper is devoted to the behaviour of these terms in Yulu. In particular it considers the syntactic units that may be modified bybȅndē, and reviews the secondary values that are attested besides actual “similarity”: “categorization”, “conformity”, “approximation”, and “illustration”. It then raises the question of a possible link betweenbə̏‘like, as’ and the homophonous locative prepositionbə̏‘at (somebody’s place)’, equivalent to Frenchchez, and argues for different origins. Finally some clues strongly suggest thatbə̏ ~ bȅ‘like, as’ originates from a noun*bȁawith the likely meaning ‘way (of being), manner’. The second part of the paper shifts to a concise account of similar facts in some genetically related SBB languages. Only some of them display cognates of Yulubə̏ ~ bȅwhich also function as prepositions/conjunctions (‘like, as, as if’). Likely related forms may be found in other languages, mostly with the meaning of ‘thus, like this/that’. Lastly, other means of expressing similarity are quickly reviewed in a dozen of related languages. In most cases the markers represent grammaticalised forms of verbs meaning ‘be similar, alike’ or body-part nouns with a secondary value of ‘manner, conformity’. In this respect, SBB languages display a variety of forms and strategies that contrast with their genetic closeness and point to the historical instability of the linguistic material used in this functional and semantic domain.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.11yli 06 10.1075/tsl.117.11yli 259 290 32 Chapter 13 01 04 Chapter 10. Similarity, equality and the like in North Saami Chapter 10. Similarity, equality and the like in North Saami 1 A01 01 JB code 416291094 Jussi Ylikoski Ylikoski, Jussi Jussi Ylikoski UiT The Arctic University of Norway/ University of Oulu, Finland 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/416291094 03 00

The paper discusses various linguistic expressions of similarity, equality and related meanings in North Saami, the major language of the westernmost branch of the Uralic language family. In addition to function-based synchronic description of similatives, equatives and functives (role phrases), the paper also discusses certain on-going language changes due to both external influences and language-internal development. Special attention is given to the use of the postpositionláhkai‘like; in the manner of’ and its development to a marker of a non-finite verb form in -nláhkaiexpressing not only similarity, but also purpose and at times even future events. As regards other parts of speech, it is proposed that a limited set of North Saami adjectives that refer to measurable physical properties such as size, weight, depth and strength have specialized equative forms on a par with the positive, comparative and superlative degrees. The analysis of similarity at phrase and clause levels is further extended to the derivational suffix ‑láganthat is used to turn both nouns and adjectives into ‘-like’ or ‘-ish’ adjectives and ultimately into semantically analogous ‘kind of’ or ‘-oid’ nouns.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.12jen 06 10.1075/tsl.117.12jen 291 320 30 Chapter 14 01 04 Chapter 11. Comparative, similative, and equative constructions in Mon Chapter 11. Comparative, similative, and equative constructions in Mon 01 04 Form, function, and development Form, function, and development 1 A01 01 JB code 308291095 Mathias Jenny Jenny, Mathias Mathias Jenny Universität Zürich 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/308291095 03 00

This study examines comparison constructions in Mon, a predominantly isolating language of western Mainland Southeast Asia. Comparison constructions, which I take to include comparative, similative, and equative, do not form a homogenous class, but employ various constructions. Their uses and functions, as well as their development in Mon over the past 1000 years, are the topic of this study, which is the first to deal with comparison in Mon.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.13cha 06 10.1075/tsl.117.13cha 321 338 18 Chapter 15 01 04 Chapter 12. Multifunctionality and polysemy of the similative marker =kanin Pesh Chapter 12. Multifunctionality and polysemy of the similative marker =kánin Pesh 1 A01 01 JB code 319291096 Claudine Chamoreau Chamoreau, Claudine Claudine Chamoreau CEMCA"/"SEDYL-CELIA (CNRS) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/319291096 03 00

This paper focuses on the multifunctionality and polysemy of the marker =kánin Pesh, a Chibchan language spoken in Honduras. This multifunctional marker appears in two types of context. First, it appears in noun phrases. In this context, =kánfunctions as a case marker and is encliticised to a noun or a pronoun. It is polysemous, expressing both similarity and comparison of equality. In constituent interrogative clauses, it is used in conjunction with a pronoun or a noun. These combinations have the meaning of awh-question word; the interrogative component is not inherent in these combinations but marked on the verb. Second, the marker =kánmay be encliticised to a verb in dependent clauses, functioning as a subordinator. In this context,=kánis also polysemous and may encode different types of epistemic modality. The dependent clauses in which=kánoccurs may express similarity and simulation, epistemic possibility, hypothetical meaning, irrealis condition, and temporal relation. The use in noun phrases suggests that for the case marker =kán, the manner meaning ‘like’ came first, expressing the notion of similarity, that is, the source function in the grammaticalisation chain. A recent use has developed exhibiting the use of =kánfor expressing comparison of equality.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.p3 06 10.1075/tsl.117.p3 Section header 16 01 04 Part III. Similative constructions and language contact Part III. Similative constructions and language contact 01 04 The Ethiopian Language Area The Ethiopian Language Area 01 01 JB code tsl.117.14zau 06 10.1075/tsl.117.14zau 341 358 18 Chapter 17 01 04 Chapter 13. Similative morphemes and their grammaticalisations in Yemsa Chapter 13. Similative morphemes and their grammaticalisations in Yemsa 1 A01 01 JB code 587291097 Silvia Zaugg-Coretti Zaugg-Coretti, Silvia Silvia Zaugg-Coretti Universität Zürich 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/587291097 03 00

Yemsa (Omotic) has two similative morphemes, the suffix-nē(indefinite) / -(y)sē(definite) (similative 1), which belongs to a system of 13 nominal cases, and the nounmàtó(similative 2). The paper explores the unusual distribution and the primary and extended functions of these ‘like’-morphemes. Similative 1 combines with the verbfō‘be there’ (yielding ‘be like X’), while similative 2 is used with other verbs (e.g. ‘run like X’). Similative 2 also encodes the standard of comparison in equative constructions (e.g. ‘as wise as X’) and marks role phrases, accord phrases and accord clauses. Furthermore, it serves as a complementiser and as a marker of negative purpose clauses. In contrast, the suffixal similative 1 is used as a marker of temporal and conditional clauses. As clausal markers, the similatives do not only encode different functions but the verb forms to which they are suffixed or encliticised are composed differently. The discussion of Yemsa is embedded in the broader areal context and possible paths of grammaticalisation are sketched.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.15dar 06 10.1075/tsl.117.15dar 359 386 28 Chapter 18 01 04 Chapter 14. The morpheme L(a)ngain Xamtanga Chapter 14. The morpheme ‑(ä)ŋäin Xamtanga 01 04 Functions and grammaticalisation targets Functions and grammaticalisation targets 1 A01 01 JB code 308291098 Chloé Darmon Darmon, Chloé Chloé Darmon Addis Ababa University 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/308291098 03 00

This chapter examines the distribution and main grammaticalisation targets of the element -(ä)ŋäin Xamtanga, a Central Cushitic (Agaw) language of the northern Ethiopian highlands. Within the noun phrase, ‑(ä)ŋäfunctions as a standard marker of similative as well as equative constructions. It is also used as a derivational morpheme involved in the formation of glottonyms. At a clausal level, first, ‑(ä)ŋätakes part in the expression of several kinds of subordinate clauses associated with the expression of both real and hypothetical similarity (i.e. similative, equative, simulative, imaginative, and counterfactual clauses). Second, ‑(ä)ŋähas grammaticalised into a marker of complement, accord, immediate anteriority, and avertive clauses.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.16cra 06 10.1075/tsl.117.16cra 387 418 32 Chapter 19 01 04 Chapter 15. Similarity and related functions in Libido Chapter 15. Similarity and related functions in Libido 1 A01 01 JB code 330291099 Joachim Crass Crass, Joachim Joachim Crass Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/330291099 03 00

This article describes the expression of similarity and related functions in Libido, e.g. equality, role, accord, purpose, immediate anteriority, glottonyms, and the function of deictic manner morphemes. Almost all of these functions are expressed by one of two similative markers,ʔisoandk’aaʔla. For the majority of functions they can be used interchangeably. However, there are a few functions whereʔisois used exclusively, e.g. in the derivation of glottonyms and the expression of immediate anteriority. The formal relation between several of these functions due to grammaticalisation processes is not at all unique and has been described for quite a number of languages worldwide. However, the broad range of functions associated with the similative morphemes of Libido seems to be less common in the languages of the world. In Ethiopia, however, this particular range of functions is attested for quite a number of languages. It probably spread out due to language contact and might be considered an Ethiopian areal feature. The article also presents the proximal manner deictickidi ‘like this’ and its medial deictic counterparthidi ‘like that’ and their functions. These manner deictics are used, among other things, for anaphoric and cataphoric reference, similar to the demonstrative determiners when combined with the similative morphemeʔiso.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.lin 06 10.1075/tsl.117.lin 419 422 4 Miscellaneous 20 01 04 Language index Language index 01 01 JB code tsl.117.nin 06 10.1075/tsl.117.nin 423 427 5 Miscellaneous 21 01 04 Name Index Name Index 01 01 JB code tsl.117.sin 06 10.1075/tsl.117.sin 429 437 9 Miscellaneous 22 01 04 Subject index Subject index
01 JB code JBENJAMINS John Benjamins Publishing Company 01 01 JB code JB John Benjamins Publishing Company 01 https://benjamins.com 02 https://benjamins.com/catalog/tsl.117 Amsterdam NL 00 John Benjamins Publishing Company Marketing Department / Karin Plijnaar, Pieter Lamers onix@benjamins.nl 04 01 00 20170531 C 2017 John Benjamins D 2017 John Benjamins 02 WORLD WORLD US CA MX 09 01 JB 1 John Benjamins Publishing Company +31 20 6304747 +31 20 6739773 bookorder@benjamins.nl 01 https://benjamins.com 21 10 16 01 00 Unqualified price 02 JB 1 02 99.00 EUR 02 00 Unqualified price 02 83.00 01 Z 0 GBP GB US CA MX 01 01 JB 2 John Benjamins Publishing Company +1 800 562-5666 +1 703 661-1501 benjamins@presswarehouse.com 01 https://benjamins.com 21 10 16 01 00 Unqualified price 02 JB 1 02 149.00 USD
685011259 03 01 01 JB code JB John Benjamins Publishing Company 01 JB code TSL 117 Eb 15 9789027265975 06 10.1075/tsl.117 13 2017021564 00 EA E107 10 01 JB code TSL 02 0167-7373 02 117.00 01 02 Typological Studies in Language Typological Studies in Language 11 01 JB code jbe-all 01 02 Full EBA collection (ca. 4,200 titles) 11 01 JB code jbe-2017 01 02 2017 collection (152 titles) 05 02 2017 collection 01 01 Similative and Equative Constructions A cross-linguistic perspective Similative and Equative Constructions: A cross-linguistic perspective 1 B01 01 JB code 769182055 Yvonne Treis Treis, Yvonne Yvonne Treis LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/769182055 2 B01 01 JB code 76182056 Martine Vanhove Vanhove, Martine Martine Vanhove LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/76182056 01 eng 11 443 03 03 vi 03 00 437 03 01 23 415 03 2017 P293 04 Grammar, Comparative and general--Coordinate constructions. 04 Grammar, Comparative and general--Grammaticalization. 04 Contrastive linguistics. 04 Typology (Linguistics) 10 LAN009060 12 CFK 24 JB code LIN.SEMAN Semantics 24 JB code LIN.SYNTAX Syntax 24 JB code LIN.THEOR Theoretical linguistics 24 JB code LIN.TYP Typology 01 06 02 00 The fifteen contributions assembled in this volume study similative and equative constructions in typologically and genetically distant languages, albeit with a focus on Africa, and from a range of perspectives. 03 00 While comparative constructions have been extensively studied in the past decades, the expression of equality and similarity has so far attracted little attention in the typological literature. The fifteen contributions assembled in this volume study similative and equative constructions in typologically and genetically distant languages, albeit with a focus on Africa, and from a range of perspectives. Purely synchronically oriented case studies are supplemented by contributions that also shed light on the diachronic development of similative and equative constructions in language contact situations. Sources of similative morphemes and lexically expressed concepts of likeness are examined, and little-known multifunctionality patterns and grammaticalisation targets of similative morphemes – such as purpose clause markers, modality morphemes and markers of glottonyms – are discussed. Based on a sample of 119 languages worldwide, a new typology of equative constructions is proposed. The book should be of interest to typologists, semanticists, specialists of grammaticalization, historical linguistics and syntax. 01 00 03 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/475/tsl.117.png 01 01 D502 https://benjamins.com/covers/475_jpg/9789027206985.jpg 01 01 D504 https://benjamins.com/covers/475_tif/9789027206985.tif 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/1200_front/tsl.117.hb.png 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/125/tsl.117.png 02 00 03 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/1200_back/tsl.117.hb.png 03 00 03 01 01 D503 https://benjamins.com/covers/3d_web/tsl.117.hb.png 01 01 JB code tsl.117.01tre 06 10.1075/tsl.117.01tre 1 6 6 Chapter 1 01 04 Introduction Introduction 1 A01 01 JB code 454291082 Yvonne Treis Treis, Yvonne Yvonne Treis LLACAN (CNRS x INALCO x Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/454291082 2 A01 01 JB code 718291083 Martine Vanhove Vanhove, Martine Martine Vanhove LLACAN (CNRS x INALCO x Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/718291083 01 01 JB code tsl.117.p1 06 10.1075/tsl.117.p1 Section header 2 01 04 Part I. Typology and grammaticalisation Part I. Typology and grammaticalisation 01 01 JB code tsl.117.02has 06 10.1075/tsl.117.02has 9 32 24 Chapter 3 01 04 Chapter 1. Equative constructions in world-wide perspective Chapter 1. Equative constructions in world-wide perspective 1 A01 01 JB code 66291085 Martin Haspelmath Haspelmath, Martin Martin Haspelmath Universität Leipzig 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/66291085 2 A01 01 JB code 583419628 The Leipzig Equative Constructions Team The Leipzig Equative Constructions Team The Leipzig Equative Constructions Team Universität Leipzig 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/583419628 03 00

In this paper, we report on a world-wide study of equative constructions (‘A is as big as B’) in a convenience sample of 119 languages. From earlier work, it has been known that European languages often have equative constructions based on adverbial relative pronouns that otherwise express degree or manner (‘how’, ‘as’), but we find that this type is rare outside Europe. We divide the constructions that we found into six primary types, four of which have closely corresponding types of comparative constructions (‘A is bigger than B’). An equative construction often consists of five components: a comparee (‘A’), a degree-marker (‘as’), a parameter (‘is big’), a standard-marker (‘as’), and a standard (‘B’).

Most frequently, the parameter is the main predicate and the equative sense is expressed by a special standard-marker. But many languages also have a degree-marker, so that we get a construction of the English and French type. Another possibility is for the equality sense to be expressed by a transitive ‘equal’ (or ‘reach’) verb, which may be the main predicate or a secondary predicate. And finally, since the equative construction is semantically symmetrical, it is also possible to “unify” the parameter and the standard in the subject position (‘A and B are equally tall’, or ‘A and B are equal in height’). But no language has only a degree-marker, leaving the standard unmarked. Finally, we note some word order correlations.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.03sch 06 10.1075/tsl.117.03sch 33 78 46 Chapter 4 01 04 Chapter 2. Toward a cognitive typology oflike-expressions Chapter 2. Toward a cognitive typology oflike-expressions 1 A01 01 JB code 560291086 Wolfgang Schulze Schulze, Wolfgang Wolfgang Schulze Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/560291086 03 00

From a typological point of view, expressions of likeness are marked for a seemingly heterogeneous set of corresponding linguistic representations, ranging for instance from locative-based case marking strategies to lexical expressions and constructional patterns. I argue thatlike-concepts represent stative or processual/dynamic transitive relational units and hence entail strong ‘verbal’ features. This aspect links the question of the conceptual background oflike-concepts to the domain of word classes. Accordingly, the semantics oflike-expressions is conditioned both by the underlying conceptual source domain and the syntactic role the expression (lexeme or morpheme) takes up in alike-relation. In this sense, the paper distinguishes intraclausal verbal patterns (she equals/is like a queen) from clause combining patterns that relate to event images (she swims like a fish < *she swims like a fish swims). In addition,like-concepts can show up as relational concepts within NPs or as adverbial elements. Such syntactically and in parts pragmatically controlled features have a strong impact on the semantic instantiation oflike-concepts that by themselves form a subtype of projection strategies. In fact,like-concepts can be scaled according to the degree to which the domain of theotheris mapped onto the identity of the referent. Such a scale may start from the following model:similar toY>alike/equal toY >become/changed toY >temporarily beY >beY. Contrary to identification concepts,like-concepts do not signal the inclusion of a referential unit into a specific set or the referential specification of given ‘properties’. Rather,like-concepts are projection strategies that relate a referential unit to properties of another referential unit in a way that ‘disguises’ or ‘masks’ the trajectory unit with the help of properties typical for the landmark unit. This relates them tobecome-concepts (temporary transfiguration),motion(‘X moves into the region of Y thus acquiring properties of Y’) andimaging/imitation(‘X is the picture of Y’, ‘X mirrors Y’ etc.). In addition, disguising processes can be directly expressed by referring to the domain of gestalt/shape. This model is probably related to cultural practices of temporary transfiguration.

The chapter elaborates these conceptual source domains from the point of view of diachronic lexical typology. Data used to illustrate these domains are mainly taken from Indo-European languages supplemented by data from non-Indo-European, mainly Semitic, languages. Additionally, the findings are evaluated with the help of data stemming from basically two East Caucasian languages, namely Udi and its earlier relative Caucasian Albanian. The results of the second part of the paper elaborate the proposed (diachronic) semantic map oflike-concepts that may serve as a preliminary template when searching for features of both Universal Cognitive Semantics and Cultural Linguistics with respect to the typology oflike-concepts.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.04cre 06 10.1075/tsl.117.04cre 79 90 12 Chapter 5 01 04 Chapter 3. Similarity, suitability, and non-epistemic modalities (volitionality, ability, and obligation) Chapter 3. Similarity, suitability, and non-epistemic modalities (volitionality, ability, and obligation) 1 A01 01 JB code 741291087 Denis Creissels Creissels, Denis Denis Creissels DDL, Université Lyon 2, CNRS 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/741291087 03 00

This article shows that verbs expressing similarity between two entities are not only found in constructions expressing the kind of epistemic modality expressed in English by means of the verbseem, but may also be involved in polysemy patterns including the expression of other types of modalities (volitionality, ability, or obligation). Three examples of African languages illustrating this type of polysemy pattern are first presented. Then, the article examines the historical developments that led from a Proto-Germanic root*līk-‘(as a noun) form, (as a verb) be of the same form’ to Tok Pisinlaik‘want’. It is followed by a discussion of the possible etymological link between a Bantu verb reconstructed as*ngà‘be like’ and a Bantu modality marker reconstructable as*nga. The conclusion proposes a scenario according to which verbs originally expressing similarity between two concrete entities may acquire uses in which they express non-epistemic modalities.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.05tre 06 10.1075/tsl.117.05tre 91 142 52 Chapter 6 01 04 Chapter 4. Similative morphemes as purpose clause markers in Ethiopia and beyond Chapter 4. Similative morphemes as purpose clause markers in Ethiopia and beyond 1 A01 01 JB code 592291088 Yvonne Treis Treis, Yvonne Yvonne Treis LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/592291088 03 00

In more than 30 languages spoken at the Horn of Africa, a similative morpheme ‘like’ or a noun ‘manner’ or ‘type’ is used as a marker of purpose clauses. The paper first elaborates on the many functions of the enclitic morpheme=g‘manner’ in Kambaata (Highland East Cushitic), which is used, among others, as a marker of the standard in similative and equative comparison (‘like’, ‘as’), of temporal clauses of immediate anteriority (‘as soon as’), of complement clauses (‘that’) and, most notably, of purpose clauses (‘in order to’). The second part of the paper gives a detailed account of the distribution of the use of ‘like’, ‘manner’ or ‘type’ as a purpose clause marker in Afroasiatic and Nilo-Saharan languages of the Horn of Africa. Similative-purpose multifunctionality, which is cross-linguistically rare, concentrates especially in central areas of Ethiopia and can be assumed to be the result of language contact between certain Cushitic, Ethio-Semitic and Omotic languages.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.06kon 06 10.1075/tsl.117.06kon 143 164 22 Chapter 7 01 04 Chapter 5. The deictic identification of similarity Chapter 5. The deictic identification of similarity 1 A01 01 JB code 455291089 Ekkehard König König, Ekkehard Ekkehard König Freie Universität Berlin 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/455291089 03 00

Starting out from the observation that comparisons and assessments of similarity and difference are fundamental cognitive processes and play an important role in a variety of human activities, this article shows that the most basic verbal means for the expression of similarity are demonstratives of manner, quality and degree (Frenchainsi,tel,tellement). It is shown that the gestural (exophoric) use of such demonstratives provides the source of a wide variety of constructions in a wide variety of languages, so that these demonstratives are instantiations of a semantic category of “similatives” par excellence. Building on earlier work by the same author, the article analyses and describes the wide-spread processes of grammaticalisation leading from exophorically used demonstratives to various types of anaphors, to quotatives, conjunctional adverbs, comparative constructions and to affirmative or approximative particles. The illustrations provided for these pervasive changes are mainly taken from European languages, but occasionally also enriched by exemplification from languages outside of Europe.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.p2 06 10.1075/tsl.117.p2 Section header 8 01 04 Part II. Case studies from around the world Part II. Case studies from around the world 01 01 JB code tsl.117.07car 06 10.1075/tsl.117.07car 167 188 22 Chapter 9 01 04 Chapter 6. Comparison, similarity and simulation in Zaar, a Chadic language of Nigeria Chapter 6. Comparison, similarity and simulation in Zaar, a Chadic language of Nigeria 1 A01 01 JB code 718291090 Bernard Caron Caron, Bernard Bernard Caron IFRA, USR 3336, CNRS, Ibadan, Nigeria 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/718291090 03 00

This paper is a corpus-based typological survey of the linguistic expression of comparison (equative, comparative, similative, simulative), in Zaar, a Chadic language spoken in the south of Bauchi State, in Northern Nigeria. After a presentation of Zaar and its typological characteristics, the paper shows how the equative (comparison of equality), similative (comparison of similarity) and simulative (pretence clauses) structures are based on the prepositionɗan‘like’ whereas the comparative structure centers on the verbmop‘surpass’. The morphosyntactic status of the prepositionɗan‘like’ is discussed in relation with the functions it takes outside the expression of comparison, in clause subordination (temporal adjuncts, relative clauses) and information structure (topicalisation). The last section shows how the morphemesɗan‘like’, the quotativetuand the specific particlekuform various combinations to express simulation. The conclusion summarizes the main properties of the expression of comparison in Zaar as follows: The comparison of superiority uses two competing verbal strategies, a serial verb construction strategy and a ditransitive strategy. The equative in Zaar does not have a parameter marker, and the comparative predicate which includes the parameter is a quality verb. Since similitude and equality comparison share the same syntactic frame in Zaar, their difference is dependent on the scalar nature of the comparative predicate. There is no difference in Zaar between specific and general equatives or similatives. The same equative/similative structure based on the prepositionɗanis used for other functions than the strict expression of similarity, i.e. substitution (‘instead of’), topicalization, role phrases and accord clauses, temporal adjuncts, relativization. From a typological point of view, the expression of similarity in Zaar is different from the “Standard Average European” equivalent. The three main differences are (i) the verbal nature of quality in Zaar; (ii) the absence of a parameter marker; (iii) the non-relative/interrogative base of the standard marker, which in Zaar is a preposition expressing manner. More generally, Zaar behaves as expected from a head-initial language, viz. the order parameter – standard marker – standard is respected.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.08van 06 10.1075/tsl.117.08van 189 212 24 Chapter 10 01 04 Chapter 7. Similative, equative, and comparative constructions in Beja (North-Cushitic) Chapter 7. Similative, equative, and comparative constructions in Beja (North-Cushitic) 1 A01 01 JB code 410291091 Martine Vanhove Vanhove, Martine Martine Vanhove LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/410291091 03 00

This paper presents an overview of the morphosyntax of comparative, equative and similative constructions in Beja, a Cushitic language spoken in Sudan. It also discusses their relevance for current typological models and the extent to which they are at variance with the existing literature (Stassen 1985;Haspelmath & Buchholz 1998;Henkelmann 2006). The paper also proposes hypotheses regarding the origin of Beja comparative and similative morphemes, an issue which is problematic. A section is dedicated to the study of the extensions of the morphemes concerned to other functional domains, such as functives, pretence clauses, similes and accord clauses, causal and adverbial clauses, within the background ofCreissels’s (2014)approach to the polysemy and multifunctionality of these markers. Comparisons with other Cushitic languages are also provided when necessary.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.09rou 06 10.1075/tsl.117.09rou 213 238 26 Chapter 11 01 04 Chapter 8. Expressing comparison in Gbaya, a Ubangian language of the Central African Republic Chapter 8. Expressing comparison in Gbaya, a Ubangian language of the Central African Republic 1 A01 01 JB code 293291092 Paulette Roulon-Doko Roulon-Doko, Paulette Paulette Roulon-Doko LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/293291092 03 00

Gbaya, an Ubangian language of Central Africa, shows that all types of comparison are qualitative expressions and not quantitative ones involving a parameter of gradation or degree. Following the theoretical framework proposed inFuchs (2014), this chapter first presents the use of the dedicated similative circumpositionhé … gá. It expresses, in different contexts, a way of doing (modus faciendi) or a way of being (modus essendi). It frames a nominal phrase and can also be used as a subordinating morpheme to frame a clause. Then, the comparison of equality is studied and analysed as a special case of similative comparison, in which the reciprocal morpheme is added to the circumposition. Another construction of comparison of equality, which does not involve the circumposition, also uses the reciprocal and is formed with two verbs‘reach’ andɲɛm‘suit’. As for the comparison of superior inequality, it is shown that it has a dedicated construction, different from the similative and equative constructions. It is formed with a verb sequence including the verbgan‘exceed’. Comparison of inferior inequality does not exist. Finally, the functive morpheme is distinct from the similative one.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.10boy 06 10.1075/tsl.117.10boy 239 258 20 Chapter 12 01 04 Chapter 9. Expressing similarity in Yulu and other Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi languages (Central Africa) Chapter 9. Expressing similarity in Yulu and other Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi languages (Central Africa) 1 A01 01 JB code 530291093 Pascal Boyeldieu Boyeldieu, Pascal Pascal Boyeldieu LLACAN (CNRS, INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/530291093 03 00

Yulu – a Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi (SBB) language of the Central African Republic and South Sudan – expresses similarity by means of two related morphemes, namelybə̏ ~ bȅ‘like, as’, andbȅndē‘like, as, as if’. The second, presumably a compound form has a wider use: it may introduce a proper name, a personal pronoun, or a demonstrative substitute. It can also mark verbal clauses. The first part of the paper is devoted to the behaviour of these terms in Yulu. In particular it considers the syntactic units that may be modified bybȅndē, and reviews the secondary values that are attested besides actual “similarity”: “categorization”, “conformity”, “approximation”, and “illustration”. It then raises the question of a possible link betweenbə̏‘like, as’ and the homophonous locative prepositionbə̏‘at (somebody’s place)’, equivalent to Frenchchez, and argues for different origins. Finally some clues strongly suggest thatbə̏ ~ bȅ‘like, as’ originates from a noun*bȁawith the likely meaning ‘way (of being), manner’. The second part of the paper shifts to a concise account of similar facts in some genetically related SBB languages. Only some of them display cognates of Yulubə̏ ~ bȅwhich also function as prepositions/conjunctions (‘like, as, as if’). Likely related forms may be found in other languages, mostly with the meaning of ‘thus, like this/that’. Lastly, other means of expressing similarity are quickly reviewed in a dozen of related languages. In most cases the markers represent grammaticalised forms of verbs meaning ‘be similar, alike’ or body-part nouns with a secondary value of ‘manner, conformity’. In this respect, SBB languages display a variety of forms and strategies that contrast with their genetic closeness and point to the historical instability of the linguistic material used in this functional and semantic domain.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.11yli 06 10.1075/tsl.117.11yli 259 290 32 Chapter 13 01 04 Chapter 10. Similarity, equality and the like in North Saami Chapter 10. Similarity, equality and the like in North Saami 1 A01 01 JB code 416291094 Jussi Ylikoski Ylikoski, Jussi Jussi Ylikoski UiT The Arctic University of Norway/ University of Oulu, Finland 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/416291094 03 00

The paper discusses various linguistic expressions of similarity, equality and related meanings in North Saami, the major language of the westernmost branch of the Uralic language family. In addition to function-based synchronic description of similatives, equatives and functives (role phrases), the paper also discusses certain on-going language changes due to both external influences and language-internal development. Special attention is given to the use of the postpositionláhkai‘like; in the manner of’ and its development to a marker of a non-finite verb form in -nláhkaiexpressing not only similarity, but also purpose and at times even future events. As regards other parts of speech, it is proposed that a limited set of North Saami adjectives that refer to measurable physical properties such as size, weight, depth and strength have specialized equative forms on a par with the positive, comparative and superlative degrees. The analysis of similarity at phrase and clause levels is further extended to the derivational suffix ‑láganthat is used to turn both nouns and adjectives into ‘-like’ or ‘-ish’ adjectives and ultimately into semantically analogous ‘kind of’ or ‘-oid’ nouns.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.12jen 06 10.1075/tsl.117.12jen 291 320 30 Chapter 14 01 04 Chapter 11. Comparative, similative, and equative constructions in Mon Chapter 11. Comparative, similative, and equative constructions in Mon 01 04 Form, function, and development Form, function, and development 1 A01 01 JB code 308291095 Mathias Jenny Jenny, Mathias Mathias Jenny Universität Zürich 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/308291095 03 00

This study examines comparison constructions in Mon, a predominantly isolating language of western Mainland Southeast Asia. Comparison constructions, which I take to include comparative, similative, and equative, do not form a homogenous class, but employ various constructions. Their uses and functions, as well as their development in Mon over the past 1000 years, are the topic of this study, which is the first to deal with comparison in Mon.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.13cha 06 10.1075/tsl.117.13cha 321 338 18 Chapter 15 01 04 Chapter 12. Multifunctionality and polysemy of the similative marker =kanin Pesh Chapter 12. Multifunctionality and polysemy of the similative marker =kánin Pesh 1 A01 01 JB code 319291096 Claudine Chamoreau Chamoreau, Claudine Claudine Chamoreau CEMCA"/"SEDYL-CELIA (CNRS) 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/319291096 03 00

This paper focuses on the multifunctionality and polysemy of the marker =kánin Pesh, a Chibchan language spoken in Honduras. This multifunctional marker appears in two types of context. First, it appears in noun phrases. In this context, =kánfunctions as a case marker and is encliticised to a noun or a pronoun. It is polysemous, expressing both similarity and comparison of equality. In constituent interrogative clauses, it is used in conjunction with a pronoun or a noun. These combinations have the meaning of awh-question word; the interrogative component is not inherent in these combinations but marked on the verb. Second, the marker =kánmay be encliticised to a verb in dependent clauses, functioning as a subordinator. In this context,=kánis also polysemous and may encode different types of epistemic modality. The dependent clauses in which=kánoccurs may express similarity and simulation, epistemic possibility, hypothetical meaning, irrealis condition, and temporal relation. The use in noun phrases suggests that for the case marker =kán, the manner meaning ‘like’ came first, expressing the notion of similarity, that is, the source function in the grammaticalisation chain. A recent use has developed exhibiting the use of =kánfor expressing comparison of equality.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.p3 06 10.1075/tsl.117.p3 Section header 16 01 04 Part III. Similative constructions and language contact Part III. Similative constructions and language contact 01 04 The Ethiopian Language Area The Ethiopian Language Area 01 01 JB code tsl.117.14zau 06 10.1075/tsl.117.14zau 341 358 18 Chapter 17 01 04 Chapter 13. Similative morphemes and their grammaticalisations in Yemsa Chapter 13. Similative morphemes and their grammaticalisations in Yemsa 1 A01 01 JB code 587291097 Silvia Zaugg-Coretti Zaugg-Coretti, Silvia Silvia Zaugg-Coretti Universität Zürich 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/587291097 03 00

Yemsa (Omotic) has two similative morphemes, the suffix-nē(indefinite) / -(y)sē(definite) (similative 1), which belongs to a system of 13 nominal cases, and the nounmàtó(similative 2). The paper explores the unusual distribution and the primary and extended functions of these ‘like’-morphemes. Similative 1 combines with the verbfō‘be there’ (yielding ‘be like X’), while similative 2 is used with other verbs (e.g. ‘run like X’). Similative 2 also encodes the standard of comparison in equative constructions (e.g. ‘as wise as X’) and marks role phrases, accord phrases and accord clauses. Furthermore, it serves as a complementiser and as a marker of negative purpose clauses. In contrast, the suffixal similative 1 is used as a marker of temporal and conditional clauses. As clausal markers, the similatives do not only encode different functions but the verb forms to which they are suffixed or encliticised are composed differently. The discussion of Yemsa is embedded in the broader areal context and possible paths of grammaticalisation are sketched.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.15dar 06 10.1075/tsl.117.15dar 359 386 28 Chapter 18 01 04 Chapter 14. The morpheme L(a)ngain Xamtanga Chapter 14. The morpheme ‑(ä)ŋäin Xamtanga 01 04 Functions and grammaticalisation targets Functions and grammaticalisation targets 1 A01 01 JB code 308291098 Chloé Darmon Darmon, Chloé Chloé Darmon Addis Ababa University 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/308291098 03 00

This chapter examines the distribution and main grammaticalisation targets of the element -(ä)ŋäin Xamtanga, a Central Cushitic (Agaw) language of the northern Ethiopian highlands. Within the noun phrase, ‑(ä)ŋäfunctions as a standard marker of similative as well as equative constructions. It is also used as a derivational morpheme involved in the formation of glottonyms. At a clausal level, first, ‑(ä)ŋätakes part in the expression of several kinds of subordinate clauses associated with the expression of both real and hypothetical similarity (i.e. similative, equative, simulative, imaginative, and counterfactual clauses). Second, ‑(ä)ŋähas grammaticalised into a marker of complement, accord, immediate anteriority, and avertive clauses.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.16cra 06 10.1075/tsl.117.16cra 387 418 32 Chapter 19 01 04 Chapter 15. Similarity and related functions in Libido Chapter 15. Similarity and related functions in Libido 1 A01 01 JB code 330291099 Joachim Crass Crass, Joachim Joachim Crass Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz 07 https://benjamins.com/catalog/persons/330291099 03 00

This article describes the expression of similarity and related functions in Libido, e.g. equality, role, accord, purpose, immediate anteriority, glottonyms, and the function of deictic manner morphemes. Almost all of these functions are expressed by one of two similative markers,ʔisoandk’aaʔla. For the majority of functions they can be used interchangeably. However, there are a few functions whereʔisois used exclusively, e.g. in the derivation of glottonyms and the expression of immediate anteriority. The formal relation between several of these functions due to grammaticalisation processes is not at all unique and has been described for quite a number of languages worldwide. However, the broad range of functions associated with the similative morphemes of Libido seems to be less common in the languages of the world. In Ethiopia, however, this particular range of functions is attested for quite a number of languages. It probably spread out due to language contact and might be considered an Ethiopian areal feature. The article also presents the proximal manner deictickidi ‘like this’ and its medial deictic counterparthidi ‘like that’ and their functions. These manner deictics are used, among other things, for anaphoric and cataphoric reference, similar to the demonstrative determiners when combined with the similative morphemeʔiso.

01 01 JB code tsl.117.lin 06 10.1075/tsl.117.lin 419 422 4 Miscellaneous 20 01 04 Language index Language index 01 01 JB code tsl.117.nin 06 10.1075/tsl.117.nin 423 427 5 Miscellaneous 21 01 04 Name Index Name Index 01 01 JB code tsl.117.sin 06 10.1075/tsl.117.sin 429 437 9 Miscellaneous 22 01 04 Subject index Subject index
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