1The English language
1
1.The origins and history of English
1
2.Modern English compared to earlier English and other languages
5
3.External and internal change
7
4.Conclusion
12
Topics for class discussion and exercises
13
2English spelling, sounds, and grammar
15
1.English spelling
15
2.Why English spelling is irregular
17
3.The phonetic alphabet
19
4.Phonetics and sound change
21
5.Some grammatical terminology
26
6.Conclusion
30
Exercises
31
3Before Old English
33
1.Origins of language
33
2.Earliest writings
37
3.Indo-European to Germanic: Sound changes
38
4.Indo-European to Germanic: Changes in morphology and syntax
42
5.Reconstruction methods
44
6.Politics and reconstruction
46
7.Conclusion
47
Exercises
48
4Old English: 450–1150
51
1.Sources and spelling
51
2.Old English sounds
55
3.Old English grammar
59
4.Old English morphology
60
5.Old English syntax
71
6.The Old English lexicon
77
7.Old English dialects
79
8.Conclusion
81
Exercises
81
Appendix A
83
Appendix B
85
Appendix C
86
Appendix D
88
Appendix E
89
Appendix F
92
5From Old to Middle English
95
1.Celtic loans
95
2.Latin loans
98
3.Scandinavian influence
100
4.French influence
104
5.Other languages
107
6.The result: A lexicon of multiple origins
108
7.Implications for the status of Middle English
111
8.Conclusion
113
Exercises and review questions
113
6Middle English: 1150–1500
115
1.Texts and spelling
115
2.Middle English sounds
121
3.Middle English morphology
125
4.Middle English syntax
131
5.Middle English word formation
139
6.Middle English dialects
140
7.Conclusion
144
Exercises
145
Appendix A
148
Appendix B
149
Appendix C
151
Appendix D
156
Appendix E
157
Appendix F
158
7Early Modern English: 1500–1700
159
1.Printing, literacy, and texts
159
2.Early Modern English spelling and sounds
163
3.Early Modern English morphology
170
4.Early Modern English syntax
174
5.The Early Modern English lexicon
179
6.Attitudes towards a standard
183
7.Regional and register varieties
188
8.Editorial and authorship issues
190
9.Conclusion
194
Exercises
194
Appendix A
195
Appendix B
196
Appendix C
198
Appendix D
200
Appendix E
202
8Modern English: 1700–the present
207
1.External history and sources
207
2.Modern English spelling and sounds
210
3.Modern English morphology
213
4.Modern English syntax
218
5.The Modern English lexicon
224
6.Attitudes towards linguistic differences
227
7.Some regional and register varieties
232
8.Conclusion
236
Exercises
237
Appendix A
238
Appendix B
240
Appendix C
241
Appendix D
244
Appendix E
247
9English around the world
251
1.External history and sources
251
2.Spelling and sounds
257
3.Grammar
261
4.The lexicons of the World Englishes
267
5.English-influenced pidgins and creoles
270
6.Consequences of the spread of English
274
7.Conclusion
276
Exercises
276
Appendix A
277
Appendix B
278
Appendix C
279
Appendix D
280
10Conclusion
283
1.From Old English to the present
283
2.Theories of language change
284
3.The linguistic cycle: Synthetic to analytic to synthetic again?
286
4.Some theories about language
287
5.Resources
289
6.Conclusion
290
Excerpts from texts
291
Practical projects
292
Paper projects
293