Selling language teacher identity on social media: Charting the diverse paths to monetization

Jinyan Wang & Nate Ming Curran
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Social media platforms host a range of free language learning content uploaded by self-styled language teachers. Like other content creators on social media, many of these language teachers seek to monetize their content. Despite growing recognition of this practice, little is known about the various monetization strategies adopted by self-styled language teachers on social media. Combining the walk-through method (Light et al., 2018Light, B., Burgess, J., & Duguay, S. (2018) The walkthrough method: An approach to the study of apps. New Media & Society, 20 (3), 881–900. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarLight, B., Burgess, J., & Duguay, S. (2018) The walkthrough method: An approach to the study of apps. New Media & Society, 20(3), 881–900. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar) with a multimodal perspective (Jewitt, 2005Jewitt, C. (2005) Multimodality, “reading”, and “writing” for the 21st century. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 26 (3), 315–331. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarJewitt, C. (2005) Multimodality, “reading”, and “writing” for the 21st century. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 26(3), 315–331. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; 2013 (2013) Multimodal methods for researching digital technologies. In S. Price, C. Jewitt, & B. Brown (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of digital technology research (pp. 250–265). Sage. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar (2013) Multimodal methods for researching digital technologies. In S. Price, C. Jewitt, & B. Brown (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of digital technology research (pp. 250–265). Sage. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar), we identify and discuss the monetization avenues adopted by two self-styled language teachers on Douyin. We argue that monetization is a crucial but underexplored aspect of language-teaching content on social media. The monetization of instructional content in digital spaces prompts a range of thorny questions, including questions around pedagogical value, as well as questions about how monetization is contributing to blurring the lines between language teaching, advertising, and entertainment.

Publication history

Date received: 23 October 2025

Date accepted: 21 August 2026

Published online: 20 October 2026

Table of contents

Digital spaces, and for-profit social media in particular, have emerged as important avenues for foreign language learning (Barrot, 2022Barrot, J. S. (2022) Social media as a language learning environment: a systematic review of the literature (2008–2019). Computer Assisted Language Learning, 35 (9), 2534–2562. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarBarrot, J. S. (2022) Social media as a language learning environment: a systematic review of the literature (2008–2019). Computer Assisted Language Learning, 35(9), 2534–2562. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Reinhardt, 2019Reinhardt, J. (2019) Social media in second and foreign language teaching and learning: Blogs, wikis, and social networking. Language Teaching, 52 (1), 1–39. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarReinhardt, J. (2019) Social media in second and foreign language teaching and learning: Blogs, wikis, and social networking. Language Teaching, 52(1), 1–39. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). These developments have fundamentally challenged traditional notions of language education. Social media platforms are increasingly recognized as providing opportunities for language teachers, including opportunities for identity development (Chao, 2022Chao, C. C. (2022) Being a YouTuber that language learners recognize: A study on constructing language teacher identities in social media community of practice. System, 109 , 102860. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarChao, C. C. (2022) Being a YouTuber that language learners recognize: A study on constructing language teacher identities in social media community of practice. System, 109, 102860. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Ho, 2025Ho, W. Y. J. (2025) Discursive construction of online teacher identity and legitimacy in English language teaching. Learning, Media and Technology, 50 (2), 219–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHo, W. Y. J. (2025) Discursive construction of online teacher identity and legitimacy in English language teaching. Learning, Media and Technology, 50(2), 219–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar) and self-branding (Nejadghanbar et al., 2024Nejadghanbar, H., Song, J., & Hu, G. (2024) English language teachers’ emotional vulnerability in the era of self-branding on social media. TESOL Quarterly, 58 (4), 1734–1760. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarNejadghanbar, H., Song, J., & Hu, G. (2024) English language teachers’ emotional vulnerability in the era of self-branding on social media. TESOL Quarterly, 58(4), 1734–1760. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Nejadghanbar & Fotouhi, 2025Nejadghanbar, H., & Fotouhi, M. (2025) English language teachers’ social media branding: mapping the construction and perception of brand identities on Instagram. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarNejadghanbar, H., & Fotouhi, M. (2025) English language teachers’ social media branding: mapping the construction and perception of brand identities on Instagram. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Wang & Curran, 2025b (2025b) Self-branding and the commodification of regional identity on Douyin. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar (2025b) Self-branding and the commodification of regional identity on Douyin. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). The effects of social media on language teaching practices is evident in a growing body of research that recognizes language teachers’ self-entrepreneurial behavior in the context of social media (e.g., Aslan & Ho, 2025Aslan, E., & Ho, W. Y. J. (2025) Projecting authenticity through nativeness: a multimodal analysis of microcelebrity English teachers’ Instagram reels. Applied Linguistics Review, 1–26. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarAslan, E., & Ho, W. Y. J. (2025) Projecting authenticity through nativeness: a multimodal analysis of microcelebrity English teachers’ Instagram reels. Applied Linguistics Review, 1–26. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Aslan, 2024Aslan, E. (2024) Bite-sized language teaching in the digital wild: Relational pedagogy and micro-celebrity English teachers on Instagram. System, 121 , 103238. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarAslan, E. (2024) Bite-sized language teaching in the digital wild: Relational pedagogy and micro-celebrity English teachers on Instagram. System, 121, 103238. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Chao, 2022Chao, C. C. (2022) Being a YouTuber that language learners recognize: A study on constructing language teacher identities in social media community of practice. System, 109 , 102860. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarChao, C. C. (2022) Being a YouTuber that language learners recognize: A study on constructing language teacher identities in social media community of practice. System, 109, 102860. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Ho, 2025Ho, W. Y. J. (2025) Discursive construction of online teacher identity and legitimacy in English language teaching. Learning, Media and Technology, 50 (2), 219–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHo, W. Y. J. (2025) Discursive construction of online teacher identity and legitimacy in English language teaching. Learning, Media and Technology, 50(2), 219–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Selvi, 2025Selvi, A. F. (2025) Teachers as influencers and personal brands on Instagram: double-tapping language ideologies in the attention economy. Applied Linguistics, 1–21. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarSelvi, A. F. (2025) Teachers as influencers and personal brands on Instagram: double-tapping language ideologies in the attention economy. Applied Linguistics, 1–21. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Wang & Curran, 2025aWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59 (3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59(3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). For example, Aslan’s (2024)Aslan, E. (2024) Bite-sized language teaching in the digital wild: Relational pedagogy and micro-celebrity English teachers on Instagram. System, 121 , 103238. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarAslan, E. (2024) Bite-sized language teaching in the digital wild: Relational pedagogy and micro-celebrity English teachers on Instagram. System, 121, 103238. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar study on Instagram identifies that language teachers are increasingly engaging in monetizing their English teaching expertise on social media and calls for future research attention in “exploring how English teacherpreneurs navigate around the potentials and pitfalls of influencer-based teaching practices on monetized, algorithmic, and often flawed social media platforms” (p. 12, emphasis added). Wang and Curran’s (2025a)Wang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59 (3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59(3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar study on Douyin explicitly engages with the question of monetization, calculating rough statistics that indicate that some language teachers on Douyin are able to earn millions of US dollars.

Despite growing interest in the self-entrepreneurial and self-branding practices of language-focused content creators, questions of monetization have largely been set aside in previous studies (but see Curran & Jenks, 2025Curran, N. M. & Jenks, C. (2025) Platformization of language education. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarCurran, N. M. & Jenks, C. (2025) Platformization of language education. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). This is an unfortunate gap in the literature, given the fact that teaching on social media often involves monetization (or the desire for monetization) among many language teachers (Chao, 2022Chao, C. C. (2022) Being a YouTuber that language learners recognize: A study on constructing language teacher identities in social media community of practice. System, 109 , 102860. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarChao, C. C. (2022) Being a YouTuber that language learners recognize: A study on constructing language teacher identities in social media community of practice. System, 109, 102860. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Ho, 2025Ho, W. Y. J. (2025) Discursive construction of online teacher identity and legitimacy in English language teaching. Learning, Media and Technology, 50 (2), 219–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHo, W. Y. J. (2025) Discursive construction of online teacher identity and legitimacy in English language teaching. Learning, Media and Technology, 50(2), 219–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Wang & Curran, 2025aWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59 (3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59(3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). The importance of addressing this gap is twofold. First, language teaching is increasingly happening on and through social media platforms where monetization mechanisms and logics are built into the infrastructures of content production and distribution. Second, monetization is a key mechanism through which platformization reshapes, and potentially undermines, traditional understandings of linguistic expertise and professionalism (Boonlert & Savski, 2025Boonlert, J., & Savski, K. (2025) Blending Linguistic and Social Entrepreneurship on Online English Tutors’ Facebook Profiles. International Journal of Applied Linguistics. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarBoonlert, J., & Savski, K. (2025) Blending Linguistic and Social Entrepreneurship on Online English Tutors’ Facebook Profiles. International Journal of Applied Linguistics. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Lee & Li, 2025aLee, T. K., & Li, W. (2025a) Refashioning linguistic expertise: Translanguaging TESOL in social media. Applied Linguistics, 1–15. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarLee, T. K., & Li, W. (2025a) Refashioning linguistic expertise: Translanguaging TESOL in social media. Applied Linguistics, 1–15. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar, 2025b (2025b) Carnivalesque: Staging postdigital literacy. System, 103905. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar (2025b) Carnivalesque: Staging postdigital literacy. System, 103905. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Nejadghanbar & Song, 2025Nejadghanbar, H., & Song, J. (2025) English language teachers’ professionalism on social media: a sociomaterial perspective. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarNejadghanbar, H., & Song, J. (2025) English language teachers’ professionalism on social media: a sociomaterial perspective. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Wang & Curran, 2025aWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59 (3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59(3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar).

This article contends that monetization plays a crucial yet underacknowledged role in determining the content that self-styled language teachers on social media create. We use the term “self-styled” to highlight that the category “teacher” has become increasingly porous and unstable with the advent of platformization and its associated challenges to traditional institutions and gatekeepers (Curran & Jenks, 2025Curran, N. M. & Jenks, C. (2025) Platformization of language education. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarCurran, N. M. & Jenks, C. (2025) Platformization of language education. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Lee & Li, 2025b (2025b) Carnivalesque: Staging postdigital literacy. System, 103905. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar (2025b) Carnivalesque: Staging postdigital literacy. System, 103905. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Wang & Curran, 2025aWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59 (3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59(3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). More specifically, the term “self-styled” highlights that many online teachers are not necessarily credentialed or institutionally recognized. Instead, they portray themselves as language teachers via careful self-branding through their skillful exploitation of various multimodal platform features (Lee & Li, 2025b (2025b) Carnivalesque: Staging postdigital literacy. System, 103905. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar (2025b) Carnivalesque: Staging postdigital literacy. System, 103905. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Wang & Curran, 2025aWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59 (3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59(3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). We refer to these teachers as platform language teacherpreneurs (PLTs) (Wang & Curran, 2025aWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59 (3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59(3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). This article addresses the relative lack of attention to online language teachers’ monetization strategies via the following research question:

RQ:

What are the various monetization routes pursued by language teachers on Douyin and how are they implemented?

In answering this question, we fill a crucial gap in the language education scholarship’s conceptualization of social media-based teaching. We argue that monetization is contributing to blurring the lines between ostensibly disparate genres (e.g., language lessons, advertisements, comedic performance) and identities (language teacher, advertiser, entertainer). In advancing our argument, we draw upon analyses of the profiles and content produced by two highly popular self-styled English teachers on China’s social media platform Douyin (the Chinese version of TikTok). The remainder of this article is organized as follows: First, we review relevant literature on technological affordances because processes of monetization are tied up intimately with platforms’ affordances (Fan, 2024Fan, J. (2024) In and against the platform: Navigating precarity for Instagram and Xiaohongshu (Red) influencers. New Media & Society, 1–17. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarFan, J. (2024) In and against the platform: Navigating precarity for Instagram and Xiaohongshu (Red) influencers. New Media & Society, 1–17. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). We next transition to a discussion of monetization and visibility on social media. We then discuss our method, followed by our findings. We conclude by reflecting on the limitations of our study and suggesting directions for further research.

Literature review

Technological affordances

The concept of affordances is commonly adopted by scholars of technology to theorize how digital platforms facilitate users’ actions. It refers, broadly speaking, to the potential actions that a technology makes possible. Despite the sometimes positive connotations associated with the word “afford,” the term is intended to be value-free and neutral (Gibson, 1979/2014Gibson, J. J. (2014) The theory of affordances (1979). In J. J. Gieseking, W. Mangold, C. Katz, S. Low, & S. Saegert (Eds.), The people, place, and space reader (pp. 56–60). Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarGibson, J. J. (2014) The theory of affordances (1979). In J. J. Gieseking, W. Mangold, C. Katz, S. Low, & S. Saegert (Eds.), The people, place, and space reader (pp. 56–60). Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Thus, while platforms may have affordances that individual users feel positively or negatively about, the term affordances is intended to capture all potential actions that a technology facilitates. The concept of affordances refers not only to those uses intended by a platform’s designers and programmers, but also to how users actually choose to engage with the platform. In this vein, Conole and Dyke (2004Conole, G., & Dyke, M. (2004) Understanding and using technological affordances: A response to Boyle and Cook. ALT-J, 12 (3), 301–308. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarConole, G., & Dyke, M. (2004) Understanding and using technological affordances: A response to Boyle and Cook. ALT-J, 12(3), 301–308. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar, p. 301) note: “an affordance of the technology does not simply refer to the intended use but also to the unintended consequences.” Similarly, scholars have put forward related concepts, such as “imagined affordances,” to illustrate the crucial role that users play in determining how technologies are taken up and utilized in the real world (Nagy & Neff, 2015Nagy, P., & Neff, G. (2015) Imagined Affordance: Reconstructing a Keyword for Communication Theory. Social Media + Society, 1 (2). Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarNagy, P., & Neff, G. (2015) Imagined Affordance: Reconstructing a Keyword for Communication Theory. Social Media + Society, 1(2). Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Nonetheless, certain courses of action are easier or more difficult to undertake. Davis & Chouinard (2016Davis, J. L., & Chouinard, J. B. (2016) Theorizing affordances: From request to refuse. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 36 (4), 241–248. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarDavis, J. L., & Chouinard, J. B. (2016) Theorizing affordances: From request to refuse. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 36(4), 241–248. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar, p. 241) conceptualize technological affordances as the means through which digital artifacts “request, demand, allow, encourage, discourage and refuse” different actions from their users. This perspective highlights that while users often find creative workarounds to the limitations that platforms seek to enforce, platforms push users to follow particular courses of action via their design and interface. In some cases, platforms directly refuse certain actions, as when X (formerly Twitter) does not allow users to make posts that exceed a certain number of characters (Davis & Chouinard, 2016Davis, J. L., & Chouinard, J. B. (2016) Theorizing affordances: From request to refuse. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 36 (4), 241–248. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarDavis, J. L., & Chouinard, J. B. (2016) Theorizing affordances: From request to refuse. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 36(4), 241–248. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar).

In this study, we adopt the lens of technological affordance to examine how Douyin’s specific design features and governance mechanisms shape PLTs’ monetization strategies. Rather than treating these strategies as purely individual choices, we understand them as responses to what Douyin’s interface and business model request, encourage, discourage, and at times refuse (Davis & Chouinard, 2016Davis, J. L., & Chouinard, J. B. (2016) Theorizing affordances: From request to refuse. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 36 (4), 241–248. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarDavis, J. L., & Chouinard, J. B. (2016) Theorizing affordances: From request to refuse. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 36(4), 241–248. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Specifically, we analyze how PLTs draw on particular platform functions (e.g., recommendation algorithms, livestreaming, embedded product links, virtual gifting) when constructing monetizable content and identities. This analytic focus on affordances directly informs the way we categorize and interpret the different monetization routes that PLTs pursue, as detailed in the Findings section.

Monetization

While monetization itself can be considered an affordance of social media platforms, a growing body of research identifies how platform-specific affordances contour content creators’ monetization strategies. Examinations of platform affordances’ impact on monetization have included both global platforms, such as YouTube, Instagram, and TikTok (e.g., Fan, 2024Fan, J. (2024) In and against the platform: Navigating precarity for Instagram and Xiaohongshu (Red) influencers. New Media & Society, 1–17. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarFan, J. (2024) In and against the platform: Navigating precarity for Instagram and Xiaohongshu (Red) influencers. New Media & Society, 1–17. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Ho, 2025Ho, W. Y. J. (2025) Discursive construction of online teacher identity and legitimacy in English language teaching. Learning, Media and Technology, 50 (2), 219–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHo, W. Y. J. (2025) Discursive construction of online teacher identity and legitimacy in English language teaching. Learning, Media and Technology, 50(2), 219–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Kaye et al., 2021Kaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9 (2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarKaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9(2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar), as well as regional platforms such as Douyin, Xiaohongshu (also known as RedNote), and Kuaishou (e.g., Fan, 2024Fan, J. (2024) In and against the platform: Navigating precarity for Instagram and Xiaohongshu (Red) influencers. New Media & Society, 1–17. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarFan, J. (2024) In and against the platform: Navigating precarity for Instagram and Xiaohongshu (Red) influencers. New Media & Society, 1–17. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Hou & Zhang, 2022Hou, J., & Zhang, Y. (2022) “Selling Poverty” on Kuaishou: How entrepreneurialism disciplines Chinese underclass online participation. Global Media and China, 7 (3), 263–282. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHou, J., & Zhang, Y. (2022) “Selling Poverty” on Kuaishou: How entrepreneurialism disciplines Chinese underclass online participation. Global Media and China, 7(3), 263–282. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Huang & Ye, 2023Huang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30 (1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHuang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30(1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). For example, Duguay’s (2019)Duguay, S. (2019) “Running the numbers”: Modes of microcelebrity labor in queer women’s self-representation on Instagram and Vine. Social media+ society, 5 (4). Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarDuguay, S. (2019) “Running the numbers”: Modes of microcelebrity labor in queer women’s self-representation on Instagram and Vine. Social media+ society, 5(4). Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar study of Instagram and Vine examines how the two platforms facilitate queer women in increasing their social and economic capital. The study demonstrates how platform governance mechanisms, market dynamics, and infrastructures shape how content creators perform various types of aesthetic and relational labor in service of monetization goals. Hou and Zhang’s (2022)Hou, J., & Zhang, Y. (2022) “Selling Poverty” on Kuaishou: How entrepreneurialism disciplines Chinese underclass online participation. Global Media and China, 7 (3), 263–282. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHou, J., & Zhang, Y. (2022) “Selling Poverty” on Kuaishou: How entrepreneurialism disciplines Chinese underclass online participation. Global Media and China, 7(3), 263–282. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar examination of entrepreneurialism among China’s “underclass” on the video-sharing platform Kuaishou illustrates how the platform’s affordances facilitate the working class to pursue monetary rewards by documenting their struggles with poverty through short videos. Similarly, a study by Lin and de Kloet (2019)Lin, J., & de Kloet, J. (2019) Platformization of the unlikely creative class: Kuaishou and Chinese digital cultural production. Social Media+ Society, 5 (4), 1–12. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarLin, J., & de Kloet, J. (2019) Platformization of the unlikely creative class: Kuaishou and Chinese digital cultural production. Social Media+ Society, 5(4), 1–12. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar found that Kuaishou facilitated those from outside the country’s urban centers to become self-employed digital entrepreneurs through content creation and livestreaming. Lin and de Kloet (2019)Lin, J., & de Kloet, J. (2019) Platformization of the unlikely creative class: Kuaishou and Chinese digital cultural production. Social Media+ Society, 5 (4), 1–12. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarLin, J., & de Kloet, J. (2019) Platformization of the unlikely creative class: Kuaishou and Chinese digital cultural production. Social Media+ Society, 5(4), 1–12. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar highlight several crucial affordances that facilitate content creators to monetize, including purchasing visibility from the platform, conducting targeted advertising for brands, and earning money via “gifting” during livestreaming (where streamers receive virtual gifts from fans that can be converted into money). Scholars have noted differences in monetization among users of different platforms as well. For example, Fan (2024)Fan, J. (2024) In and against the platform: Navigating precarity for Instagram and Xiaohongshu (Red) influencers. New Media & Society, 1–17. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarFan, J. (2024) In and against the platform: Navigating precarity for Instagram and Xiaohongshu (Red) influencers. New Media & Society, 1–17. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar finds that while content creators on Instagram leverage their status to attract outside opportunities, RedNote users are more likely to treat their work on the platform as their full-time job.

Monetizing visibility

The literature demonstrates that much of the content that content creators produce is aimed at increasing their visibility, which is a key precursor to monetization (Bishop, 2020Bishop, S. (2020) Algorithmic Experts: Selling Algorithmic Lore on YouTube. Social Media + Society, 6 (1), 1–11. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarBishop, S. (2020) Algorithmic Experts: Selling Algorithmic Lore on YouTube. Social Media + Society, 6(1), 1–11. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Fan, 2024Fan, J. (2024) In and against the platform: Navigating precarity for Instagram and Xiaohongshu (Red) influencers. New Media & Society, 1–17. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarFan, J. (2024) In and against the platform: Navigating precarity for Instagram and Xiaohongshu (Red) influencers. New Media & Society, 1–17. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). At the same time, platforms also monetize visibility by selling visibility to content creators. For example, Douyin offers a range of tools that allow users to increase their visibility by directing traffic to their profiles (Liang, 2022Liang, M. (2022) The end of social media? How data attraction model in the algorithmic media reshapes the attention economy. Media, Culture and Society, 44 (6), 1110–1131. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarLiang, M. (2022) The end of social media? How data attraction model in the algorithmic media reshapes the attention economy. Media, Culture and Society, 44(6), 1110–1131. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Wang, 2025Wang, S. (2025) “When pigs fly”: Resources swapping, affordable marketing, and the transformation of Douyin from short video sharing to online shopping. New Media & Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, S. (2025) “When pigs fly”: Resources swapping, affordable marketing, and the transformation of Douyin from short video sharing to online shopping. New Media & Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). The word “traffic” (流量, liu liang) describes “the scale of visibility, which refers to the exposure of individual accounts and to the overall visibility of the platform” (Huang & Ye, 2023Huang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30 (1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHuang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30(1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar, p. 7). Chief among Douyin’s traffic-boosting tools is Dou+, which is Douyin’s own visibility marketing tool. The tool allows content creators to purchase visibility for their content at prices set by the platform, effectively turning visibility on Douyin into a tradable commodity (Huang & Ye, 2023Huang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30 (1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHuang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30(1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). For example, Douyin claims that users can pay less than USD 5 in exchange for an expected increase of more than 1500 views (ByteDance, 2025c (2025c, Sep 3). Douyin. https://​www​.douyin​.com/ (2025c, Sep 3). Douyin. https://​www​.douyin​.com/). In turn, platform metrics, such as the number of likes and followers, serve as important criteria for advertisers seeking content creators to collaborate with (Huang & Ye, 2023Huang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30 (1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHuang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30(1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Douyin directly pushes traffic to new content creators to help them gain visibility, while also encouraging them to purchase additional traffic via Dou+ (Huang & Ye, 2023Huang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30 (1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHuang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30(1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar).

Once content creators have gained a certain amount of visibility, they can monetize their visibility through various avenues. For example, Douyin’s Creator Reward Program encourages content creators to monetize through content creation (Wang, 2025Wang, S. (2025) “When pigs fly”: Resources swapping, affordable marketing, and the transformation of Douyin from short video sharing to online shopping. New Media & Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, S. (2025) “When pigs fly”: Resources swapping, affordable marketing, and the transformation of Douyin from short video sharing to online shopping. New Media & Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Meanwhile, Douyin’s content trading system, Start-Chart (星图), facilitates transactions between the platform, advertisers, and content creators (Huang & Ye, 2023Huang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30 (1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHuang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30(1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Moreover, content creators can earn money via virtual gifting, as well as “merchandising on behalf” (merchandising on behalf allows streamers to promote multiple products or services on behalf of multiple brands in their livestream (Kaye et al., 2021Kaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9 (2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarKaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9(2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). To further facilitate monetization, Douyin offers content creators access to affiliated services such as Ocean Engine (巨量引擎), the official marketing service brand under Douyin Group, and Shopping Ads (巨量千川), the e-commerce advertising platform under Ocean Engine. Both platforms offer tutorials as well as marketing and sales solutions to help content creators monetize their content. Reflecting on the integration of monetization into the platform, Wang (2025)Wang, S. (2025) “When pigs fly”: Resources swapping, affordable marketing, and the transformation of Douyin from short video sharing to online shopping. New Media & Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, S. (2025) “When pigs fly”: Resources swapping, affordable marketing, and the transformation of Douyin from short video sharing to online shopping. New Media & Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar argues that Douyin is in many ways more of an e-commerce platform than a content-sharing platform.

Previous research indicates that Douyin discourages (restricts) monetization opportunities for certain groups of users by manipulating traffic distribution (Liang, 2022Liang, M. (2022) The end of social media? How data attraction model in the algorithmic media reshapes the attention economy. Media, Culture and Society, 44 (6), 1110–1131. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarLiang, M. (2022) The end of social media? How data attraction model in the algorithmic media reshapes the attention economy. Media, Culture and Society, 44(6), 1110–1131. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Huang & Ye, 2023Huang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30 (1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHuang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30(1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Wang, 2025Wang, S. (2025) “When pigs fly”: Resources swapping, affordable marketing, and the transformation of Douyin from short video sharing to online shopping. New Media & Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, S. (2025) “When pigs fly”: Resources swapping, affordable marketing, and the transformation of Douyin from short video sharing to online shopping. New Media & Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Specifically, Douyin’s traffic allocation tends to favor those with moderate followings, whereas those with very large or very small audiences receive less visibility (Wang, 2025Wang, S. (2025) “When pigs fly”: Resources swapping, affordable marketing, and the transformation of Douyin from short video sharing to online shopping. New Media & Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, S. (2025) “When pigs fly”: Resources swapping, affordable marketing, and the transformation of Douyin from short video sharing to online shopping. New Media & Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). This strategy is ostensibly pursued in order to make creative labor more viable for smaller businesses and brands, as without such measures, “top creators are very likely to ‘kidnap’ the platform with their unregulated growth” (Wang, 2025Wang, S. (2025) “When pigs fly”: Resources swapping, affordable marketing, and the transformation of Douyin from short video sharing to online shopping. New Media & Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, S. (2025) “When pigs fly”: Resources swapping, affordable marketing, and the transformation of Douyin from short video sharing to online shopping. New Media & Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar, p. 10).

While much of the existing research on platform monetization has examined how platforms facilitate content creators’ monetization, research has also highlighted that individual monetization strategies are highly platform-specific, shaped by the unique affordances and business models of individual platforms (Scolere et al., 2018Scolere, L., Pruchniewska, U., & Duffy, B. E. (2018) Constructing the platform-specific self-brand: The labor of social media promotion. Social Media+ Society, 4 (3). Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarScolere, L., Pruchniewska, U., & Duffy, B. E. (2018) Constructing the platform-specific self-brand: The labor of social media promotion. Social Media+ Society, 4(3). Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). For example, comparing Douyin with its international counterpart TikTok, Kaye et al. (2021)Kaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9 (2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarKaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9(2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar demonstrate that Douyin provides content creators with wider avenues for monetization than TikTok. More specifically, livestreaming is a more pronounced feature on Douyin than TikTok, with Douyin enabling content creators to merchandise on behalf of multiple brands (带货, dai huo) (Kaye et al., 2021Kaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9 (2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarKaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9(2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). The practice of merchandising on behalf via livestreaming was first introduced by Chinese E-Commerce platforms such as Taobao and later integrated by social media platforms like Douyin (Yeung, 2019Yeung, E. (2019) China Internet Report 2019. abacus, South China Morning Post. https://​www​.scmp​.com​/china​-internet​-reportYeung, E. (2019) China Internet Report 2019. abacus, South China Morning Post. https://​www​.scmp​.com​/china​-internet​-report). For example, Li Jiaqi, also widely known as the “King of Lipstick,” gained his fame by posting videos of himself trying out various lipsticks. He is now recognized as one of the most popular livestreamers in China, having hosted more than 240 livestreams in 2020, during which he merchandised on behalf of not only beauty brands, but also companies selling food and home appliances (Li et al., 2023Li, H., Wang, R., & Shi, C. (2023) “Oh My God! Buy it!” Analysis on the Characteristics of Anchor’s Speech in Live Broadcast E-Commerce and Purchase Intention: A Linguistic Perspective. Sage Open, 13 (3). Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarLi, H., Wang, R., & Shi, C. (2023) “Oh My God! Buy it!” Analysis on the Characteristics of Anchor’s Speech in Live Broadcast E-Commerce and Purchase Intention: A Linguistic Perspective. Sage Open, 13(3). Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). His business success exemplifies how sustained visibility on platforms like Douyin can be converted into a highly profitable commercial enterprise. Similar examples are evident in research on Chinese wanghong (internet celebrities) women’s monetization of visibility on social media platforms. These wanghong women, mostly young, post visually appealing content (e.g., makeup tutorials, lifestyle vlogs), leverage their femininity to attract millions of followers, and monetize their visibility by promoting endorsed products and brands (Sandel & Wang, 2022Sandel, T. L., & Wang, Y. (2022) Selling intimacy online: The multi-modal discursive techniques of China’s wanghong. Discourse, Context & Media, 47 , 100606. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarSandel, T. L., & Wang, Y. (2022) Selling intimacy online: The multi-modal discursive techniques of China’s wanghong. Discourse, Context & Media, 47, 100606. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Wang & Feng, 2022Wang, Y., & Feng, D. W. (2022) Identity performance and self-branding in social commerce: A multimodal content analysis of Chinese wanghong women’s video-sharing practice on TikTok. Discourse, Context & Media, 50 , 100652. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, Y., & Feng, D. W. (2022) Identity performance and self-branding in social commerce: A multimodal content analysis of Chinese wanghong women’s video-sharing practice on TikTok. Discourse, Context & Media, 50, 100652. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). In these cases, visibility is not merely a prerequisite for monetization; it is itself a marketable commodity that can be promoted and sold.

Taken together, previous research shows that visibility on platforms like Douyin is both a precondition for monetization and can itself function as a marketable commodity. Crucially, monetizing visibility is not limited to beauty influencers and wanghong women; it also shapes how other types of content creators (e.g., PLTs) design their content, brand themselves, and pursue income.

Methodology

Study site

Launched in September 2016, Douyin is a popular short-video sharing platform in China (ByteDance, 2025aByteDance (2025a, Sep 3). About us. https://​www​.bytedance​.com​/en/ByteDance (2025a, Sep 3). About us. https://​www​.bytedance​.com​/en/, 2025b (2025b, Sep 3). ByteDance jobs. https://​jobs​.bytedance​.com​/experienced​/product (2025b, Sep 3). ByteDance jobs. https://​jobs​.bytedance​.com​/experienced​/product). As of September 2023, it had reached 700 million monthly active users (Quest Mobile, 2024Quest Mobile (2024, September 1). Annual report on China’s internet core trends. https://​www​.questmobile​.com​.cn​/research​-book​/annualreportQuest Mobile (2024, September 1). Annual report on China’s internet core trends. https://​www​.questmobile​.com​.cn​/research​-book​/annualreport). A prominent feature of Douyin is the platform’s heavy reliance on a recommendation algorithm system that learns users’ interests based on their interactions with the videos and delivers an endless stream of personalized content (Zhao, 2021Zhao, Z. (2021) Analysis on the “Douyin (TikTok) mania” phenomenon based on recommendation algorithms. In E3S Web of Conferences (Vol. 235, Article 03029). EDP Sciences. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarZhao, Z. (2021) Analysis on the “Douyin (TikTok) mania” phenomenon based on recommendation algorithms. In E3S Web of Conferences (Vol. 235, Article 03029). EDP Sciences. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). This algorithm-driven approach allows users to obtain content tailored to their preferences without the need for active searching. Moreover, Douyin’s data-driven content distribution model lowers the threshold for monetization by allowing even accounts with only a few followers to reach wide audiences — so long as their videos achieve favorable engagement metrics (Liang, 2022Liang, M. (2022) The end of social media? How data attraction model in the algorithmic media reshapes the attention economy. Media, Culture and Society, 44 (6), 1110–1131. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarLiang, M. (2022) The end of social media? How data attraction model in the algorithmic media reshapes the attention economy. Media, Culture and Society, 44(6), 1110–1131. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). As a result, the platform has attracted a vast number of content creators seeking to monetize their videos.

Douyin interface

At the top of the Douyin homepage, a row of tabs provides easy access to key features (see Figure 1). By default, the “Recommended (推荐)” tab is selected, automatically displaying videos curated by the algorithm based on the user’s viewing history and personal preferences. Users can swipe up to view previously encountered videos or swipe down to change to view new videos recommended by the algorithm. The “Livestreaming (直播)” tab showcases real-time livestreams recommended by the platform’s algorithm. The “Featured (精选)” tab highlights videos that are currently trending, selected according to overall popularity and public interest. Flanking the row of feature tabs are two icons: a menu icon (three horizontal lines) on the left and a search icon (magnifying glass) on the right. The central area of the screen displays recommended videos, each accompanied by the content creator’s account name and a brief video description.

Figure 1.A screenshot of a Douyin user’s homepage interface
Figure 1.

The “+” button located in the center of the navigation bar allows users to create and upload photos and videos. Upon clicking the “+” button, the camera automatically activates, and a range of functional icons overlays on the screen (see Figure 2).

Figure 2.A screenshot of a Douyin user’s video filming interface
Figure 2.

Once a content creator records a video, they can edit the video using Douyin's in-app video editing tool, jian ying (剪映). This tool makes it relatively easy for users to produce high-quality edited videos (Liang, 2022Liang, M. (2022) The end of social media? How data attraction model in the algorithmic media reshapes the attention economy. Media, Culture and Society, 44 (6), 1110–1131. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarLiang, M. (2022) The end of social media? How data attraction model in the algorithmic media reshapes the attention economy. Media, Culture and Society, 44(6), 1110–1131. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). At this stage, the content creator can edit the cover photo, add video descriptions, and include hashtags, mentions, and location tags. The platform also automatically recommends digital stickers, hashtags, filters, and background music to help the content creator achieve higher viewership (Liang, 2022Liang, M. (2022) The end of social media? How data attraction model in the algorithmic media reshapes the attention economy. Media, Culture and Society, 44 (6), 1110–1131. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarLiang, M. (2022) The end of social media? How data attraction model in the algorithmic media reshapes the attention economy. Media, Culture and Society, 44(6), 1110–1131. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). These platform-recommended features can increase the visibility of a creator’s content, potentially enhancing opportunities for monetization. A privacy option allows users to control who can view the video.

Data selection

Teacher selection

Among the various groups of content creators on Douyin, “language teachers” have emerged as a particularly popular category. As of February 2025, there were roughly 100 language teachers on the platform with over one million followers. The content produced by these platform language teacherpreneurs (PLTs) is highly diverse: some focus on pedagogically-oriented instructional videos that deliver micro-lessons, while others primarily create humorous roleplay videos to attract viewers’ attention (Jiang, 2022Jiang, Y. (2022) The Making of Microcelebrities on Douyin: Multimodal Design and Online Identities in Informal English Instruction Videos [Doctoral Dissertation, University of South Florida]. USF Tampa Graduate Theses and Dissertations. https://​digitalcommons​.usf​.edu​/etd​/9381/Jiang, Y. (2022) The Making of Microcelebrities on Douyin: Multimodal Design and Online Identities in Informal English Instruction Videos [Doctoral Dissertation, University of South Florida]. USF Tampa Graduate Theses and Dissertations. https://​digitalcommons​.usf​.edu​/etd​/9381/; Wang & Curran, 2025aWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59 (3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59(3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar, 2025b (2025b) Self-branding and the commodification of regional identity on Douyin. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar (2025b) Self-branding and the commodification of regional identity on Douyin. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). These variations make PLTs a productive site for examining how monetization shapes language teaching content and language teachers’ identities on social media.

To address the research question, we selected two PLTs, whom we call John and Lucy,11.These two PLTs are ethnically Chinese and the English pseudonyms are assigned by the authors to make it easier for the readers to follow the discussion. for a detailed case study analysis. The two accounts were drawn from a larger dataset of online language teachers compiled by the first author as part of her doctoral research. We employed purposive sampling to facilitate both within-case and cross-case comparisons (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015) Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation. Wiley.Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarMerriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015) Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation. Wiley.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Initial criteria for selection included: (1) self-identification as a language teacher in their Douyin profile, in line with our focus on “self-styled” teachers; (2) being among the top ten most popular language teachers on Douyin in terms of number of followers (as of January 2024); and (3) tracked use of multiple monetization strategies.

More specifically, John was selected because he maintains a regular and frequent livestream schedule and employs one of the most diversified monetization strategies among PLTs on Douyin. This makes him a rich case for examining how PLTs utilize platform affordances for commercial gain. Lucy was purposefully selected in part because she serves as an illustrative and highly contrastive case to John. Unlike John, Lucy does not leverage her self-ascribed language teacher identity to sell English courses, but instead monetizes her visibility gained through English-related content in a variety of non-language-related ways. Analyzing these two accounts together allows us to compare distinct monetization routes and identity performances that flourish on the same platform.

Rather than claiming representativeness, we treat John and Lucy as informative cases that exemplify contrasting approaches to commodifying visibility and language teacher identity on Douyin.

Video and livestream segment selection

The first author watched all the videos that each PLT had uploaded since they joined Douyin (in 2017 and 2021, respectively) until January 2024 (approximately 300 videos in total). In addition, the first author also watched several livestreams from each PLT. The decision not to watch all livestreams was made because PLTs tend to follow a relatively stable move structure in their livestreams, typically cycling through: (1) introducing a product and claiming its excellence, (2) offering a short demo lesson, (3) justifying the price and framing the value of the product, and (4) using scarcity and urgency to prompt immediate transactions. Although each livestream typically lasts three to four hours, much of this time consists of repeated iterations of the same sequence. On this basis, we contend that segments that contain a full cycle of these moves are analytically sufficient for our analysis. From each teacher, we selected a 20-minute segment of livestreaming that was typical of their usual practices and that captured at least one complete sequence of their monetization moves.

In terms of video selection, the first author recorded incidents of monetization in her field notes while watching the two PLTs’ videos, and later discussed them with the second author. The data included in the findings section were selected based on the following criteria: (1) the video content is framed as English teaching (i.e., the PLT speaks or teaches English or references their English teacher identity); (2) the PLT engages in explicit monetization strategies (e.g., promoting products or services). Although these two criteria apply to a wide range of the PLTs’ videos, the two videos we selected differ in how closely English-related content is integrated into their monetization strategies, including one that foregrounds monetization and does not feature any explicit English teaching at all. This contrast allows us to illustrate how PLTs differentially prioritize and accomplish their combined pedagogical and commercial aims.

Ultimately, we selected data to illustrate the diverse monetization strategies utilized by PLTs on Douyin. The data discussed in the findings section includes two videos and two livestream segments on Douyin. Our goal was not representativeness but to choose examples that would allow for productive illustration of the various strategies identified in the research process.

Ethics

Both individuals included in this study are semi-public figures and all the data we analyzed is publicly available. Therefore, we did not seek consent for including their profile pages and video content. Nonetheless, we assigned pseudonyms and blurred their faces in the screenshots to protect their privacy. We did not consider it necessary to assign pseudonyms to the brands or products being promoted. The study was approved by the ethics committee of our university.

Analytical approach

To systematically analyze the two teachers’ profiles and videos, we combined the walkthrough method (Light et al., 2018Light, B., Burgess, J., & Duguay, S. (2018) The walkthrough method: An approach to the study of apps. New Media & Society, 20 (3), 881–900. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarLight, B., Burgess, J., & Duguay, S. (2018) The walkthrough method: An approach to the study of apps. New Media & Society, 20(3), 881–900. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar) with a multimodal approach (Jewitt, 2005Jewitt, C. (2005) Multimodality, “reading”, and “writing” for the 21st century. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 26 (3), 315–331. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarJewitt, C. (2005) Multimodality, “reading”, and “writing” for the 21st century. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 26(3), 315–331. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; 2013 (2013) Multimodal methods for researching digital technologies. In S. Price, C. Jewitt, & B. Brown (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of digital technology research (pp. 250–265). Sage. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar (2013) Multimodal methods for researching digital technologies. In S. Price, C. Jewitt, & B. Brown (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of digital technology research (pp. 250–265). Sage. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). A walkthrough is “a way of engaging directly with an app’s interface to examine its technological mechanisms and embedded cultural references to understand how it guides users and shapes their experiences” (Light et al., 2018Light, B., Burgess, J., & Duguay, S. (2018) The walkthrough method: An approach to the study of apps. New Media & Society, 20 (3), 881–900. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarLight, B., Burgess, J., & Duguay, S. (2018) The walkthrough method: An approach to the study of apps. New Media & Society, 20(3), 881–900. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar, p. 882). The walk-through method, a widely used approach in app studies, is often applied in studies of digital platforms to examine the technological affordances of various platforms (e.g., Curran et al., 2025Curran, N. M., Gu, B., Zhen, L., & Jenks, C. (2025) AI and Native Speakerism: The Intersections of Technology, Language Assessment, and Linguistic Objectivity. RELC Journal. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarCurran, N. M., Gu, B., Zhen, L., & Jenks, C. (2025) AI and Native Speakerism: The Intersections of Technology, Language Assessment, and Linguistic Objectivity. RELC Journal. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Huang & Ye, 2023Huang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30 (1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHuang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30(1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Kaye et al., 2021Kaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9 (2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarKaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9(2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). In our case, the walkthrough method allows us to identify the specific affordances that Douyin offers for monetization, and then to trace how PLTs take up these affordances in their videos and livestreams.

We employed a multimodal approach to investigate how various modes of communication collectively contributed to meaning-making (Jewitt, 2017 (2017) The Routledge handbook of multimodal analysis (2nd ed.). Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar (2017) The Routledge handbook of multimodal analysis (2nd ed.). Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Multimodality recognizes that meaning is rarely constructed through a single mode; rather, it emerges from the interplay of multiple modes — such as writing, speech, sound, and visual elements — forming what is known as a multimodal ensemble (Jewitt, 2005Jewitt, C. (2005) Multimodality, “reading”, and “writing” for the 21st century. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 26 (3), 315–331. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarJewitt, C. (2005) Multimodality, “reading”, and “writing” for the 21st century. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 26(3), 315–331. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar, 2013 (2013) Multimodal methods for researching digital technologies. In S. Price, C. Jewitt, & B. Brown (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of digital technology research (pp. 250–265). Sage. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar (2013) Multimodal methods for researching digital technologies. In S. Price, C. Jewitt, & B. Brown (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of digital technology research (pp. 250–265). Sage. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Because it equips scholars with the means “to look beyond language in a rapidly changing social and technological landscape” (Jewitt, 2013 (2013) Multimodal methods for researching digital technologies. In S. Price, C. Jewitt, & B. Brown (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of digital technology research (pp. 250–265). Sage. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar (2013) Multimodal methods for researching digital technologies. In S. Price, C. Jewitt, & B. Brown (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of digital technology research (pp. 250–265). Sage. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar, p. 253), multimodal analysis has gained popularity in research on social media platforms (e.g., Aslan, 2024Aslan, E. (2024) Bite-sized language teaching in the digital wild: Relational pedagogy and micro-celebrity English teachers on Instagram. System, 121 , 103238. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarAslan, E. (2024) Bite-sized language teaching in the digital wild: Relational pedagogy and micro-celebrity English teachers on Instagram. System, 121, 103238. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Darvin, 2022Darvin, R. (2022) Design, resistance and the performance of identity on TikTok. Discourse, Context & Media, 46 , 100591. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarDarvin, R. (2022) Design, resistance and the performance of identity on TikTok. Discourse, Context & Media, 46, 100591. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Ho, 2025Ho, W. Y. J. (2025) Discursive construction of online teacher identity and legitimacy in English language teaching. Learning, Media and Technology, 50 (2), 219–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHo, W. Y. J. (2025) Discursive construction of online teacher identity and legitimacy in English language teaching. Learning, Media and Technology, 50(2), 219–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Wang & Curran, 2025aWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59 (3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59(3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). A key assumption underlying multimodality is that individuals actively orchestrate meaning by selecting and configuring different modes, such as image, sound, and text (Jewitt, 2013 (2013) Multimodal methods for researching digital technologies. In S. Price, C. Jewitt, & B. Brown (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of digital technology research (pp. 250–265). Sage. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar (2013) Multimodal methods for researching digital technologies. In S. Price, C. Jewitt, & B. Brown (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of digital technology research (pp. 250–265). Sage. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Multimodal approaches highlight the agency of sign makers, who assemble different modes within the social and material constraints of a given context (Jewitt, 2013 (2013) Multimodal methods for researching digital technologies. In S. Price, C. Jewitt, & B. Brown (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of digital technology research (pp. 250–265). Sage. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar (2013) Multimodal methods for researching digital technologies. In S. Price, C. Jewitt, & B. Brown (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of digital technology research (pp. 250–265). Sage. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). The different modes that sign makers (e.g., content creators) draw upon are related to the affordances of the platform, with Douyin encouraging content creators to engage in a range of different modes (Wang & Curran, 2025aWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59 (3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59(3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar).

It should be noted that the aim of this study is not to provide a full multimodal discourse analysis of the two PLTs’ videos and livestream segments. Rather, we draw on insights from multimodal approaches to focus selectively on those communicative modes that are most relevant to our research question. Accordingly, our analysis attends not only to spoken language but also to text, images, sound, emojis, and their interaction in meaning-making. That is, how these modes are orchestrated to form the PLTs’ monetization practices and self-presentation. The two videos and two livestream segments were fully transcribed and translated by a Gen-AI tool and verified by the first author. Data other than spoken language, such as on-screen subtitles, video descriptions, and post-production graphics, were noted down and translated by the first author (Bezemer & Mavers, 2011Bezemer, J., & Mavers, D. (2011) Multimodal transcription as academic practice: A social semiotic perspective. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 14(3). 191–206. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarBezemer, J., & Mavers, D. (2011) Multimodal transcription as academic practice: A social semiotic perspective. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 14(3). 191–206. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar).

Both authors individually watched the videos and livestream segments selected for detailed analysis, and then met to discuss their initial observations. Discrepancies in interpretation were resolved by watching the content together. Through this iterative process of multiple rounds of analysis and discussion, we were able to reach mutual agreement regarding our findings.

Findings

We first present our analysis of the two PLTs’ profiles and then structure our findings according to the type of monetization strategy adopted. The presented examples illustrate both similarities and differences in the monetization strategies and content produced by the two PLTs.

Profile analysis

John

As of January 2024, John has the largest number of followers among all PLTs on Douyin, with nearly 20 million followers. John’s cover photo features a banner image of his book “John’s Magical Phonics.” Superimposed on his cover photo is his account name, “John (courses on sale).” His profile picture is a professional headshot in which he poses with a slight tilt of his head while holding his autobiography in his right hand, positioned near his face. Below the profile picture, it indicates the Multi-Channel Network company (i.e., influencer agency) with which John has signed. The top line of John’s bio highlights the self-chosen descriptors “English,” “music,” and “drama king.” John also includes the Douyin account of his course assistant, who is responsible for dealing with any matters related to the English courses that he sells. Below John’s bio are the links to his Product Window, his livestream history, and, rather incongruously, a playlist of songs sung by him. The rest of the profile page is organized with his uploaded videos, arranged in reverse chronological order for viewers to explore. Figure 3 provides a screenshot of John’s profile page.

Figure 3.A screenshot of John’s profile page
Figure 3.

Lucy

Boasting the fourth most followers among PLTs (as of January 2024), Lucy has around 7 million followers. At the time of data collection, her cover photo prominently showcased her professional teacher identity, describing her as the “founder and CEO of an English brand” with “20 years of practical teaching experience.” Superimposed on her cover photo is the name of her account (Lucy) as well as her profile picture. The rest of the profile page is organized with her uploaded videos, arranged in reverse chronological order for viewers to explore. As of January 2024, Lucy had uploaded more than 300 videos in total, including three pinned videos. Most of her earlier video collections feature bite-sized English-related content such as “how to say 晕车 (carsick) in English?” and videos clarifying simple grammar points such as “go to school” versus “go to the school.” Crucially, in most of her English teaching videos, she role-plays Cinderella’s stepmother, with the titular role of Cinderella played by her own young daughter.

Brand collaboration/product endorsement

Both John and Lucy create videos that blend language instruction with promotion of particular brands and products. However, it should be noted that we use the term language instruction liberally, as both PLTs upload large numbers of videos that are of dubious pedagogical value. The pedagogical value of the videos is dubious in that even those videos that are dedicated to “teaching” primarily consist of self-branding mixed with highly condensed, decontextualized language items (e.g., isolated phrases or grammar points). Thus, although these videos are usually framed as “English teaching,” it is doubtful that viewers could significantly benefit from the videos in terms of improving language proficiency. Instead, these videos function primarily as attention-grabbing self-branding tools that increase the visibility and engagement metrics (e.g., number of likes) of the PLTs’ accounts — vital benchmarks for evaluating visibility and user engagement (Baym, 2013Baym, N. K. (2013) Data not seen: The uses and shortcomings of social media metrics. First Monday, 18 (10).Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarBaym, N. K. (2013) Data not seen: The uses and shortcomings of social media metrics. First Monday, 18(10).Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar) and, in turn, help attract brand collaborations (Huang & Ye, 2023Huang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30 (1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHuang, Y., & Ye, W. (2023) ‘Traffic rewards’, ‘algorithmic visibility’, and ‘advertiser satisfaction’: How Chinese short-video platforms cultivate creators in stages. Convergence, 30(1), 659–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar).

On Douyin, such brand collaboration is enabled by its marketing service platform “Star Chart,” where popular users can partner with brands to promote products in their videos, leveraging their popularity and influence for generating revenue (Kaye et al., 2021Kaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9 (2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarKaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9(2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Proof of the monetized nature of the PLTs’ content is evidenced by the continuous mentioning of different brand names and product models within their videos, as well as tags or hashtags featuring the brand and product details in the video descriptions or pinned comments. We illustrate the PLTs’ practice of brand collaboration via the example below, in which John collaborates with the automobile brand SAIC MAXUS to promote the “MIFA 9.”

(Chinese, English, words in bold are stressed)

For example, if you see this car and you say, “Look at the maximum artistic exterior, this is the ‘efficient’ electric car I want, and the power consumption for a hundred kilometers is only 17 kWh,” anyone with a discerning eye will know that you know what you are talking about. When you want a comfortable interior, like this luxurious aviation seat and the immersive design of the central control triple screen, you say “‘comfortable’ seat with a maximum intelligent interior” […] The most important point when looking at MPV is the space. If you are facing this kind of large space, you will say, “Wow, it’s got a ‘flexible’ space.” The large rear space is maximally friendly, perfect for a family outing…

(Video description: Teach you how to buy a beautiful and simple SAIC MAXUS MIFA 9 in English #SAIC MAXUS #It’s time to buy the SAIC MAXUS pure electric MPV @SAIC MAXUS)

While John talks, the video portrays him seated in the second row of the car. As he introduces the vehicle’s key features and unique selling points (e.g., “the central control triple screen”), the camera shifts and zooms in to highlight each feature he mentions.

In the video above, although John commodifies his teacher identity by directly endorsing a branded vehicle, the endorsement ostensibly takes place alongside a vocabulary lesson. The vocabulary “taught” in the video (e.g., “efficient,” “comfortable,” “flexible”) is carefully chosen to match the features being promoted for the endorsed car, making the product endorsement feel relatively natural to the viewer. Combining vocabulary learning with product endorsement allows John to maintain congruence between his promotional behavior and his core online persona as an English teacher. Despite the dubious value of the video in terms of vocabulary acquisition, the advertisement does feature some ostensibly pedagogical content, helping John to retain a sense of authenticity — a crucial trait for social media content creators (Hou, 2019Hou, M. (2019) Social media celebrity and the institutionalization of YouTube. Convergence, 25 (3), 534–553. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHou, M. (2019) Social media celebrity and the institutionalization of YouTube. Convergence, 25(3), 534–553. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Nejadghanbar & Shaahdadi, 2025Nejadghanbar, H., & Shaahdadi, M. (2025) English language teacher identity construction on Instagram: A looking-glass self theory perspective. System, 132 , 103696. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarNejadghanbar, H., & Shaahdadi, M. (2025) English language teacher identity construction on Instagram: A looking-glass self theory perspective. System, 132, 103696. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). At the same time, John’s frequent use of technical language related to the endorsed product (e.g., “the power consumption for a hundred kilometers is only 17 kWh”) positions John as a persuasive authority who is knowledgeable about not only English but also cars, thereby increasing the credibility and perceived value of his product endorsement (Bhatia, 2018Bhatia, A. (2018) Interdiscursive performance in digital professions: The case of YouTube tutorials. Journal of Pragmatics, 124 , 106–120. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarBhatia, A. (2018) Interdiscursive performance in digital professions: The case of YouTube tutorials. Journal of Pragmatics, 124, 106–120. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). The repeated mentioning of the endorsed brand and product model in the video description (and the hashtags) seems optimized to take advantage of Douyin’s algorithm and enhance the video’s searchability.

Taken together, the various modes, including the video description, script, and the shots of the video itself, illustrate how PLTs leverage their teacher identities and the monetization opportunities of social media to monetize their online persona (Haynes & Wang, 2020Haynes, N., & Wang, X. (2020) Making migrant identities on social media: a tale of two neoliberal cities on the Pacific Rim. Media, Culture & Society, 42 (1), 126–135. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHaynes, N., & Wang, X. (2020) Making migrant identities on social media: a tale of two neoliberal cities on the Pacific Rim. Media, Culture & Society, 42(1), 126–135. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar).

Like John, Lucy engages in collaborations with multiple brands. In the example below, she is seen collaborating with an education company, Youdao, which produces an electronic dictionary pen. The video portrays Lucy ostensibly guiding her daughter to practice English with the pen while simultaneously framing her as “a foreign language teacher” who can guide, help, and support vocabulary learning and writing. Crucially, she presents English learning difficulties as problems that can be solved through the consumption of the endorsed product, mobilizing a marketing strategy typical of persuasive ads. Shots focus on her daughter trying out the various functions of the pen under her careful guidance (see Figure 4). Much like John’s car endorsement video above, the video includes close-up shots that highlight the pen’s features while Lucy narrates the pen’s functions. The promotional message that the pen “has a vocabulary database of over 10 million words” is prominently highlighted in bright colors and large fonts. The hashtag featuring brand name and product model in the video descriptions further underscores that this video primarily functions as product promotion rather than study advice (see Figure 4).

(Chinese, words in bold are stressed)

This is the new generation Youdao Dictionary Pen X5, featuring an extensive vocabulary of over 10 million words and full synchronization with textbooks from elementary to high school. Its AI-powered writing guidance helps you learn how to write essays, while grade-specific translation and word search are available at the touch of a button. With real-person pronunciation support, it’s like having a foreign language teacher by your side. If you’re unsure how to read a word or sentence, simply ask the pen for help. It can also translate more than 100 languages…

(Video description: Have you ever seen anyone write an English composition like this? #Youdao X5 super magic pen #Douyin e-commerce newcomer released # Lucy)

Figure 4.A screenshot of Lucy guiding her daughter to try out the functions of the endorsed dictionary pen
Figure 4.

A major difference between Lucy’s video and John’s video discussed above is that Lucy does not highlight her identity as an English teacher. Instead, she employs an authoritative voice, speaking from a position of expertise on the topic of English study resources. In fact, however, the video offers no clue that Lucy can even speak English since it is entirely in Chinese. However, while Lucy’s video does not actually teach English, the promotion of a dictionary pen nonetheless benefits from her self-ascribed identity as an English teacher.

Having introduced one major avenue through which popular PLTs on Douyin earn money, we now turn to discussing how PLTs utilize livestreaming for monetization.

Livestreaming

Livestreaming to sell courses

Similar to Taobao and other e-commerce platforms in China, Douyin enables in-app sales and purchases through its Douyin Store feature, allowing merchants or individuals to set up their own storefronts to showcase and sell products. Although users can easily make purchases through links embedded in the merchants’ or individuals’ Douyin stores or Product Windows, livestreaming is gaining increasing popularity among consumers. Through livestreams, creators can showcase products and entertain viewers. Douyin integrates its e-commerce features to support content creators’ monetization within its livestreaming ecosystem, including promoting and selling their own products as well as merchandising on behalf of multiple brands (Kaye et al., 2021Kaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9 (2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarKaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9(2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Additionally, content creators can also earn income through virtual gifts sent by viewers, which can be converted into cash (Kaye et al., 2021Kaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9 (2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarKaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9(2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar).

John utilizes the livestreaming function of Douyin to sell his courses. He exploits the affordances of livestreaming to directly address his target customers, conduct demo lessons, respond in real time to the audience’s comments, and disparage other PLTs on Douyin. Additionally, as shown in Figure 5, Douyin’s affordances of continuous on-screen viewer engagement (e.g., comments about the price, target learners, and procedures for accessing the class) enable John and his assistant to address viewers’ questions as they arise and to tailor their responses to viewers’ concerns, thereby nudging hesitant viewers toward immediate purchase.

Figure 5.A screenshot of John’s livestream from the webpage interface
Figure 5.

John is highly successful in selling these courses. As of January 2024, he achieved sales revenue of over USD 10 million from directly selling pre-recorded English courses.22.This figure is roughly calculated based on the transaction record from his product window and the average price of his courses sold during his livestreams. Notably, John takes advantage of the synchronous nature of livestreams to establish a sense of urgency, which he uses to urge, berate, and cajole viewers to make purchases. Most often, John makes these appeals using a strategy of feigned immediacy. For example, in the livestream excerpt below, John repeatedly references a supposedly dwindling supply of discounted courses that are supposedly available for a limited time only (unsurprisingly, this limited supply is periodically increased). To better establish urgency, John mentions various time-limited promotions, including free global shipping. Livestreaming lends itself to this strategy of feigned immediacy since it depends upon the audience being synchronous and co-present. Such tactics would be ineffective in a video played back at a later date.

(Chinese)

John:Buy this course for [RMB]398. I’ll give you a ten-second countdown: 10, 9, 8…Five seconds left — has anyone not paid yet? Will the price go up in the future? It definitely will.
Assistant:Definitely.[…]
John:After today, there won’t be global free shipping. If you’re in the US, just shipping the textbook there costs as much as the course itself.
Assistant:Right.[…]
John:After class, you’ll have a real teacher to practice with, plus four live sessions where I’ll explain things. And two books with global free shipping. Are there postcards?
Assistant:Yes.

While John directs his questions to the audience, his assistant also confirms his words and answers his questions. While John’s voice is authoritative, the brief, echoing responses (“Definitely,” “Right,” “Yes”) from his assistant in the background function as an amplifier and reinforcement of the product’s unique selling points. Crucially, he makes a number of immediacy-based appeals, as when he asks the rhetorical question, “Will the price [of the course] go up in the future?” In so doing, John also directly involves the audience, cultivating rapport and buy-in.

Based on the excerpts above, one can see how the technological affordances of a particular platform function (e.g., livestreaming) call upon PLTs to create different kinds of content. For example, the affordances of livestreaming lend themselves to immediacy appeals, interaction with the audience, and stoking viewers’ fear of “missing out” (The Economist, 2025The Economist (2025, September 18). Are you addicted to shopping? The Economist (Online). https://​www​.economist​.com/The Economist (2025, September 18). Are you addicted to shopping? The Economist (Online). https://​www​.economist​.com/). Crucially, through orchestration of the PLT’s visual presence, product display, embedded product links, and live dialogue with the audience in the livestream, the excerpts above illustrate how language teachers on Douyin monetize ostensibly pedagogical practices and how this process is encouraged by platform affordances.

Livestreaming on behalf of other brands

As illustrated above, John’s livestream focuses on directly selling his English learning courses. In contrast, Lucy uses her livestreaming to engage in merchandising on behalf. Merchandising on behalf refers to a monetization avenue whereby creators earn a commission by selling products or services on behalf of other brands. When content creators merchandise products for other brands, buyers are directed to click the product link in the content creators’ Product Windows to visit the original merchant’s store to conduct the purchase. Scholars have highlighted that merchandising on behalf is often facilitated through livestreaming (Kaye et al., 2021Kaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9 (2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarKaye, D. B. V., Chen, X., & Zeng, J. (2021) The co-evolution of two Chinese mobile short video apps: Parallel platformization of Douyin and TikTok. Mobile Media & Communication, 9(2), 229–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar).

Like John, Lucy adopts a strategy of feigned-immediacy that depends on successfully creating a sense of urgency among her viewers. The excerpt below is taken from a livestream in which she promotes a nutritional supplement from a brand called “Nutriland.”

(Chinese)

Lucy:If you buy it yourself, it’s always [RMB]550, not a penny less. But today is different. Today is the fifth anniversary of Lucy’s collaboration with Nutriland. Listen up, today we’re not charging [RMB]550, not even [RMB]450. Today it’s only [RMB]359.
Assistant(s):[RMB]359.[…]
Lucy:This surprise is definitely worth it, but it’s limited.
Assistant(s):Limited quantity.
Lucy:So, let’s see who can grab it. Get ready — fastest fingers first — three, two, one, grab the link!

As illustrated in this excerpt, Lucy’s current livestreaming is mostly disconnected from English learning or teaching. That is, while some of her content features products associated with English learning (e.g., the translator pen discussed above), the majority of her content has no connection with English language teaching at all. In fact, most of her earnings appear to come in the form of brand collaboration and merchandising on behalf of non-language-teaching-related brands. This differentiates her significantly from John, whose content is mostly English pedagogy-related in some way. Yet, much of Lucy’s initial fame and followers were derived from her earlier videos teaching English. Lucy’s expertise in English and the ostensible teacher identity have allowed her to carve out a niche in content creation that sets her apart from other content creators on Douyin (Khamis et al., 2017Khamis, S., Ang, L., & Welling, R. (2017) Self-branding, ‘micro-celebrity’ and the rise of social media influencers. Celebrity Studies, 8 (2), 191–208. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarKhamis, S., Ang, L., & Welling, R. (2017) Self-branding, ‘micro-celebrity’ and the rise of social media influencers. Celebrity Studies, 8(2), 191–208. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Lucy’s self-ascribed language teacher identity functions primarily as a unique selling point (Lee, 2025Lee, T. K. (2025) Pop linguistics in social media: translanguaging and literacy edutainment. Discourse, Context & Media, 67 , 100933. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarLee, T. K. (2025) Pop linguistics in social media: translanguaging and literacy edutainment. Discourse, Context & Media, 67, 100933. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar) that allows her to stand out from other, non-language-related content creators on Douyin. Now, however, much of Lucy’s content is related to health and well-being. In fact, much of her content is completely devoid of any English or teaching-related content, and none of the content analyzed in this article reveals that Lucy is an English teacher. Lucy’s use of her English teacher identity to build an audience that she can sell products to illustrates how, increasingly, English is not a product to be sold but a form of symbolic capital that can be commodified for self-branding within the wider social media ecology (Pan & Zhang, 2024Pan, L., & Zhang, D. (2024) Unveiling online identity construction: A case study of language teaching micro-celebrities on Bilibili. Digital Applied Linguistics, 1 , 2278. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarPan, L., & Zhang, D. (2024) Unveiling online identity construction: A case study of language teaching micro-celebrities on Bilibili. Digital Applied Linguistics, 1, 2278. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Lucy illustrates clearly how porous the boundaries between “teacher” and “advertiser” have become as a result of platformization (Curran & Jenks, 2025Curran, N. M. & Jenks, C. (2025) Platformization of language education. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarCurran, N. M. & Jenks, C. (2025) Platformization of language education. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar).

Discussion

The findings demonstrate that PLTs embrace several different monetization routes and make use of a range of different platform affordances. Most interestingly, we found that while John primarily blends his pedagogical videos with monetization, Lucy instead uses her widespread popularity to monetize content —much of which is sometimes completely unrelated to English. That is, we found that PLTs monetize not only English teaching but also use their established fame as English teachers to earn money from products and brands unrelated to language teaching. This finding is important because it underscores how, in the context of social media’s attention economy, language teachers can commodify their identities in ways that are unrelated to language teaching. For example, Lucy uses her English-teaching content to attract viewers, but derives her income from merchandising on behalf of a variety of non-language-related products.

Taken together, our findings illustrate how language teaching pedagogy, entertainment, and monetization are imbricated in complex ways in digital spaces. In tracing the two PLTs’ different monetization strategies, this article contributes to the wider literature on social media and social media influencers on language teaching (e.g., Aslan, 2024Aslan, E. (2024) Bite-sized language teaching in the digital wild: Relational pedagogy and micro-celebrity English teachers on Instagram. System, 121 , 103238. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarAslan, E. (2024) Bite-sized language teaching in the digital wild: Relational pedagogy and micro-celebrity English teachers on Instagram. System, 121, 103238. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Aslan & Ho, 2025Aslan, E., & Ho, W. Y. J. (2025) Projecting authenticity through nativeness: a multimodal analysis of microcelebrity English teachers’ Instagram reels. Applied Linguistics Review, 1–26. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarAslan, E., & Ho, W. Y. J. (2025) Projecting authenticity through nativeness: a multimodal analysis of microcelebrity English teachers’ Instagram reels. Applied Linguistics Review, 1–26. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Ho, 2025Ho, W. Y. J. (2025) Discursive construction of online teacher identity and legitimacy in English language teaching. Learning, Media and Technology, 50 (2), 219–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarHo, W. Y. J. (2025) Discursive construction of online teacher identity and legitimacy in English language teaching. Learning, Media and Technology, 50(2), 219–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Nejadghanbar & Song, 2025Nejadghanbar, H., & Song, J. (2025) English language teachers’ professionalism on social media: a sociomaterial perspective. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarNejadghanbar, H., & Song, J. (2025) English language teachers’ professionalism on social media: a sociomaterial perspective. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Crucially, this study directs scholars’ attention towards monetization itself. We argue that the practices of self-styled language teachers on social media platforms reflect the monetization incentives of digital platforms. PLTs strategically navigate platform algorithms by leveraging a wide range of platform affordances, including carefully selected hashtags and keywords to maximize algorithmic visibility, video descriptions that promote collaborating brands and products, and interactive tools such as livestreams that boost real-time audience engagement and seek to drive product sales through urgency appeals. These findings are of relevance to applied linguistics because they illustrate how porous the boundaries of language teaching and the professional category “language teacher” have become as a result of platformization and its underlying logics (Curran & Jenks, 2025Curran, N. M. & Jenks, C. (2025) Platformization of language education. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarCurran, N. M. & Jenks, C. (2025) Platformization of language education. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Wang & Curran, 2025aWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59 (3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59(3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar).

Broadly speaking, our findings demonstrate that social media has the potential to transform what constitutes language teaching by prioritizing content that is amenable to monetization. These social-media-driven trends are recognized as challenging traditional notions of professionalism in language education (Nejadghanbar & Song, 2025Nejadghanbar, H., & Song, J. (2025) English language teachers’ professionalism on social media: a sociomaterial perspective. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarNejadghanbar, H., & Song, J. (2025) English language teachers’ professionalism on social media: a sociomaterial perspective. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar) and potentially necessitating a rethinking of how language teachers are educated (Aslan & Ho, 2025Aslan, E., & Ho, W. Y. J. (2025) Projecting authenticity through nativeness: a multimodal analysis of microcelebrity English teachers’ Instagram reels. Applied Linguistics Review, 1–26. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarAslan, E., & Ho, W. Y. J. (2025) Projecting authenticity through nativeness: a multimodal analysis of microcelebrity English teachers’ Instagram reels. Applied Linguistics Review, 1–26. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). In this vein, Lee and Li (2025a)Lee, T. K., & Li, W. (2025a) Refashioning linguistic expertise: Translanguaging TESOL in social media. Applied Linguistics, 1–15. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarLee, T. K., & Li, W. (2025a) Refashioning linguistic expertise: Translanguaging TESOL in social media. Applied Linguistics, 1–15. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar talk about the proliferation of social media teaching content in terms of the “democratization of language teaching.” Certainly, social media allows non-credentialed teachers a chance to compete with more established and credentialed instructors. However, it is important to note that the visibility of all social media content creators is determined by for-profit companies, driven almost entirely by financial motives (Kopf, 2020Kopf, S. (2020) “Rewarding good creators”: corporate social media discourse on monetization schemes for content creators. Social Media + Society, 6 (4), Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarKopf, S. (2020) “Rewarding good creators”: corporate social media discourse on monetization schemes for content creators. Social Media + Society, 6(4), Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). The fact that social media power is concentrated among a small group of technology companies raises the question of whether platformization is facilitating a democratization of language teaching or simply shifting power away from established institutions (e.g., universities and accreditation services) and into the hands of profit-driven platforms and their owners (Curran & Jenks, 2025Curran, N. M. & Jenks, C. (2025) Platformization of language education. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarCurran, N. M. & Jenks, C. (2025) Platformization of language education. Applied Linguistics Review. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). It is no surprise that for-profit social media companies prioritize content that keeps users engaged rather than promoting teaching content that has been vetted for pedagogical value. So long as content creators do not run afoul of platform rules (e.g., promoting illegal behaviors or prohibitions on sexual content), then the platforms have little reason to regulate PLTs’ content. Finally, it is important to remember that while the popularity of individual PLTs may ostensibly seem to be decided “democratically” based (in part) on popularity among regular users, the reality is that content creators — and the brands with which they collaborate — can pay money for their content to be promoted by the platforms (Fan, 2024Fan, J. (2024) In and against the platform: Navigating precarity for Instagram and Xiaohongshu (Red) influencers. New Media & Society, 1–17. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarFan, J. (2024) In and against the platform: Navigating precarity for Instagram and Xiaohongshu (Red) influencers. New Media & Society, 1–17. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Wang, 2025Wang, S. (2025) “When pigs fly”: Resources swapping, affordable marketing, and the transformation of Douyin from short video sharing to online shopping. New Media & Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, S. (2025) “When pigs fly”: Resources swapping, affordable marketing, and the transformation of Douyin from short video sharing to online shopping. New Media & Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). Paid visibility further complicates the claim that social media simply democratizes language teaching, since PLTs’ popularity is often shaped by commercial arrangements rather than user interests alone.

Yet, the commercial logic and power of these platforms are not without limitations. Although platform algorithms favor engaging and monetizable content, audience engagement is not guaranteed. If viewers do not perceive tangible benefits over time, they may unfollow particular influencers or even leave the platform. This is evidenced in the fact that some PLTs lose followers over time. Thus, platform logics that favor entertaining and promoted content do not necessarily guarantee sustained audience engagement; they are constantly mediated by users’ ongoing evaluation of the legitimacy and benefits of the content they consume. Therefore, PLTs must both satisfy the platform’s engagement-driven metrics while also cultivating an image of legitimacy to retain and grow their audience. Legitimacy is performed and negotiated through references to formal qualifications, self-ascription of professional status, proof of teaching effectiveness, or partnerships with recognizable institutions or brands. In order to signal the trustworthiness of both the content and the platform, platforms themselves invest in projecting legitimacy, utilizing verification badges, creator award programs, and curated “educational” categories.

Here, we wish to clearly state that we do not intend our arguments to be interpreted as a criticism of individual PLTs or even an evaluation of their pedagogy. Nor do we want to imply that monetization is inherently bad. Most types of language teaching are monetized, and PLTs are hardly alone in seeking compensation for their work. If anything, our goal is to highlight how political-economic concerns in language teaching are affected by platformization and social media (Block, 2017Block, D. (2017) Political economy in applied linguistics research. Language Teaching, 50 (1), 32–64. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarBlock, D. (2017) Political economy in applied linguistics research. Language Teaching, 50(1), 32–64. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar; Simpson, 2022Simpson, W. (2022) Capital, commodity, and English language teaching. Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarSimpson, W. (2022) Capital, commodity, and English language teaching. Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar). It seems increasingly clear that by opening new opportunities for language teachers to monetize their teaching (and non-teaching) content, social media platforms are rendering the category “language teacher” increasingly open to contestation (Wang & Curran, 2025aWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59 (3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google ScholarWang, J., & Curran, N. M. (2025a) Competing for views and students: The implications of platformization for online language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 59(3), 1262–1287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar).

Conclusion

This article has discussed the various monetization strategies adopted by two Douyin-based PLTs. We have argued that monetization is an overlooked factor that deeply contours the content that PLTs produce. We have also noted that monetization fuels PLTs to upload content that is often completely unrelated to language teaching. Despite its contribution, this study has a number of limitations. First, we have focused on only two accounts, which means that our findings are not generalizable. Second, the in-depth qualitative analysis we have conducted does not allow us to draw definitive conclusions about how a particular monetization strategy (e.g., merchandising-on-behalf) may or may not correlate with particular types of content (e.g., humorous videos). Third, because our study has explicitly avoided assessing the PLTs’ content from a pedagogical perspective, we cannot offer an informed evaluation of the content’s pedagogical value (or lack thereof).

We urge future research to continue exploring the connections between monetization and language-teaching content in digital spaces. Studies that explicitly assess the pedagogical value of PLTs’ content would be particularly valuable. Also needed are quantitative studies that can analyze larger data sets systematically. For example, large-scale quantitative studies can offer important insights into broader trends concerning the connections between monetization and content. As digital platforms proliferate and AI continues to advance, it seems inevitable that the lines between language instruction, advertising, and entertainment will continue to blur.

Funding

Open Access publication of this article was funded through a Transformative Agreement with Hong Kong Polytechnic University.

Notes

1.These two PLTs are ethnically Chinese and the English pseudonyms are assigned by the authors to make it easier for the readers to follow the discussion.
2.This figure is roughly calculated based on the transaction record from his product window and the average price of his courses sold during his livestreams.

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Address for correspondence

Nate Ming Curran

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Hong Kong

[email protected]

Biographical notes

Jinyan (Stephy) Wang is a doctoral graduate of the Faculty of Humanities at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Her research interests include language teacher identity, social media communication, intercultural communication, and the platformization of language education.

Nate Ming Curran is an Assistant Professor in the Department of English and Communication at The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. His research focuses on the platformization of language teaching and he runs the Language Technology & Cultural lab, a research space that brings together BA, MA, and PhD students to conduct collaborative research.

 
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