Metacognition has been increasingly discussed as one of the main features of learning in the 21st century (see Haukås, Bjørke, & Dypedahl, 2018). In the Dynamic Model of Multilingualism Theory (DMM) (Herdina & Jessner 2002), which applies Complexity and Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST) to multilingualism, it is argued that multilinguals develop increased knowledge of languages and language learning through experience. In this article a CDST perspective on multilingual learning and teaching with a focus on metacognition will be presented. The central sub-component of metacognition in DMM, in the form of multilingual awareness, comprising metalinguistic and cross-linguistic awareness in multilingual learners, will be discussed as a core feature of multilingual proficiency in multilingual development. In a number of studies in the Austrian and South Tyrolean context multilingual awareness has turned out as a core factor in both learning and teaching. These studies show that multilingual awareness has to be trained in multilingual pedagogical approaches in order to foster multilingualism. A holistic approach is needed to deal with the ongoing tensions between complexity, dynamics, adaptation and stability. Although it becomes clear that the nature of multilingualism can only be understood in relation to its context, it is nevertheless possible to isolate and define constant factors in an efficient multilingual awareness training as provided by the Five Building Blocks of Holistic Multilingual Education.
Metacognition, which has often been referred to as “thinking about thinking”, has been discussed as one of the main features of learning in the 21st century lately (see Haukas, Bjørke, & Dypedahl, 2018). In other words it is a regulatory system that helps a person understand and control his or her own cognitive performance. Not that long ago it was identified by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) as one of the 21st century skills. Metacognition as a central and core educational skill has also been increasingly discussed in applied linguistics, particularly in research on pluri- and multilingualism (see Jessner, 2018).
References
Albert, I., Trommsdorff, G., Mayer, B., & Schwarz, B.
(2005) Value of children in urban and rural Indonesia : Socio-demographic indicators, cultural aspects, and empirical findings. In G. Trommsdorff, & B. Nauck (Eds.), The value of children in cross-cultural perspective. Case studies from eight societies, January (pp. 171–207). Pabst.
Allgäuer-Hackl, E.
(2017) The development of metalinguistic awareness in multilingual learners. How effective is multilingual training in the classroom? (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Innsbruck.
Allgäuer-Hackl, E., Hofer, B., Malzer-Papp, E., & Jessner, U.
(2021) Ist mehrsprachiger Unterricht wirklich vorteilhaft?Zeitschrift für Interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht, 26(2), 21–47.
Allgäuer-Hackl, E., Naphegyi, S., Sammer, G., & Steinböck-Matt, S.
in press). 5 Bausteine umfassender sprachlicher Bildung als normativer Bezugsrahmen für den schulischen Umgang mit Sprachen in der Migrationsgesellschaft. In I. Amberg, B. Holub, N. Tahmasian, & N. Wiener Eds. Handlungsfeld Mehrsprachigkeit in der Elementar- und Primarstufe (AT)wbv Publikation
Aronin, L., & Jessner, U.
(2015) Understanding current multilingualism: What can the butterfly tell us? In U. Jessner & C. Kramsch (Eds.), The multilingual challenge. Cross-disciplinary perspectives (pp. 271–292). De Gruyter Mouton.
Bialystok, E.
(2001) Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy, and cognition. Cambridge University Press.
Bialystok, E.
(2011) Reshaping the mind: The benefits of bilingualism. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie Expérimentale, 65(4), 229–235.
Bialystok, E., & Barac, R.
(2012) Emerging bilingualism: Dissociating advantages for metalinguistic awareness and executive control. Cognition, 122(1), 67–73.
Bialystok, E., McBride-Chang, C., & Luk, G.
(2005) Bilingualism, language proficiency, and learning to read in two writing systems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 580–590.
Cekaite, A.
(2022) Children’s perception of multilingual landscapes in interaction. In A. Stavans & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of childhood multilingualism (pp. 649–667). Cambridge University Press.
Cekaite, A., & Evaldsson, A-C.
(2017) Language policies in play: Language learning ecologies in children’s peer and teacher interactions in preschool. Multilingua, 36(4), 451–475.
Chung-Fat-Yim, A., & Bialystok, E.
(2022) Language and thought in multilingual children. In A. Stavans & U. Jessner (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of child multilingualism (pp. 216–265). Cambridge University Press.
Cross, D. R., & Paris, S. G.
(1988) Developmental and instructional analyses of children’s metacognition and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(2), 131–142.
Cummins, J.
(1991) Interdependence of first- and second-language proficiency in bilingual children. In E. Bialystok (Ed.), Language processing in bilingual children (pp. 70–89). Cambridge University Press.
Cummins, J.
(2000) Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Multilingual Matters.
Cummins, J.
(2017) Teaching for transfer in multilingual school contexts. In O. García, A. Lin, & S. May (Eds.), Bilingual and multilingual education. Encyclopedia of language and education (pp. 103–115). Springer.
Dahm, R.
(2015) Developing cognitive strategies through pluralistic approaches. In G. De Angelis, U. Jessner, & M. Kresić (Eds.), Crosslinguistic influence and crosslinguistic interaction in multilingual language learning (pp. 43–70). Bloomsbury.
De Angelis, G., & Jessner, U.
(2012) Writing across languages in a bilingual context: A Dynamic Systems Theory approach. In R. Manchón (Ed.), L2 writing development: Multiple perspectives (pp. 47–68). Mouton de Gruyter.
de Bot, K.
(2008) Introduction: Second language development as a dynamic process. The Modern Language Journal, 92(2), 166–178.
De Houwer, A.
(2021) Bilingual development in childhood. Cambridge University Press.
Deuchar, M.
(2022) Multilingualism in early childhood: The role of the input. In A. Stavans, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of childhood multilingualism (pp. 58–81). Cambridge University Press.
Dolas, F., Jessner, U., & Cedden, G.
(2022) Cognitive advantages of multilingual learning on metalinguistic awareness, working memory and L1 lexicon size: Reconceptualization of linguistic giftedness from a DMM perspective. Journal of Cognition, 5(1), 1–15.
Dörnyei, Z.
(2009) Individual differences: Interplay of learner characteristics and learning environment. Language Learning59(1), 230–248.
DyME (Dynamics of Multilingualism with English) at the University of Innsbruck
(2014) Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism, and education. Palgrave MacMillan.
Grießler, M.
(2001) The effects of third language learning on second language proficiency: An Austrian example. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 4(1), 50–60.
Grigorenko, E., Sternberg, R. J., & Ehrman, M.
(2000) A theory-based approach to the measurement of foreign language learning ability: The Canal-F Theory and test. The Modern Language Journal, 84(3), 390–405.
Haukås, A., Bjørke, C., & Dypedahl, M.
(Eds.) (2018) Metacognition in language learning and teaching. Routledge.
Hélot, C., Van Gorp, K., Frijns, C., & Sierens, S.
(2018) Introduction: Towards critical multilingual language awareness for 21st century schools. In C. Hélot, C. Frijns, K. Van Gorp, & S. Sierens (Eds.), Language awareness in multilingual classrooms in Europe. From theory to practice (pp. 1–20). Mouton De Gruyter.
Herdina, P., Allgaeuer-Hackl, E., & Malzer-Papp, E.
(Eds.) (2019) Mehrsprachensensibel? Monolinguale Sprachenpolitik trifft auf mehrsprachige Praxis. Multilingual sensibility? Monolingual policies meet multilingual practice. Innsbruck University Press.
Herdina, P., & Jessner, U.
(2002) A dynamic model of multilingualism. Changing the psycholinguistic perspective. Multilingual Matters.
(2015) On the dynamics of early multilingualism. A psycholinguistic study. Mouton de Gruyter.
Hofer, B., & Jessner, U.
(2022) Metalinguistic awareness and early multilingual learning. In A. Stavans, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of childhood multilingualism (pp. 163–189). Cambridge University Press.
Horvath, L., & Jessner, U.
in press). Multilingual awareness-raising as a promising pedagogical tool in the initial stage of L3 teaching. Hungarian Journal of Applied Linguistics.
Hufeisen, B., & Neuner, G.
(2003) Mehrsprachigkeitskonzept – Tertiärsprachenlernen – Deutsch nach Englisch. Council of Europe Publishing.
Ianco-Worrall, A. D.
(1972) Bilingualism and cognitive development. Child Development, 43(4), 1390–1400.
Jessner, U.
(2006) Linguistic awareness in multilinguals: English as a third language. Edinburgh University Press.
Jessner, U.
(2008) A DST model of multilingualism and the role of metalinguistic awareness. The Modern Language Journal, 92(2), 270–283.
Jessner, U.
(2017) Multicompetence approaches to language proficiency development in multilingual education. In O. Garcia & A. Lin (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education, Vol 5.: Bilingual programs (pp, 1–13). Springer.
Jessner, U.
(2018) Metacognition in multilingual learning. A DMM perspective. In Å. Haukås, C. Bjørke, & M. Dypedahl (Eds.), Metacognition in language learning and teaching (pp. 31–47). Routledge.
Jessner, U.
(2021) Use it or lose it! Was bleibt von den Fremdsprachenkenntnissen nach der Schule?Zeitschrift für Interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht, 26(2), 119–142.
Jessner, U.
in prep.) On the development of trilingual children in Ladin kindergarten in South Tyrol.
Jessner, U. & E. Allgäuer-Hackl
(2020) Multilingual awareness and metacognition in multilingually diverse classrooms. Journal of Multilingual Theories and Practices, 1(1), 66–88.
Jessner, U., Allgäuer-Hackl, E., & Hofer, B.
(2016) Emerging multilingual awareness in educational contexts: From theory to practice. Canadian Modern Language Review, 72(2), 157–182.
Jessner, U., Allgäuer-Hackl, E., & Malzer-Papp, E.
(2021) Paving a new way to literacy development in migrant children: A DMM perspective. In E. O. Breuer, E. Lindgren, A. Stavans, & E. van Steendam (Eds.), Multilingual Literacy (pp. 97–122). Multilingual Matters.
Jessner, U., & Kramsch, C.
(Eds.) (2015) The Multilingual Challenge: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Jessner, U., & Mayr-Keiler, K.
(2018) Why context matters: Social inclusion and multilingualism in an Austrian school setting. Multilingualism and Social Inclusion, 5(4).
Jessner, U., Oberhofer, K., & Megens, M.
(2020) The attrition of school-learned foreign languages: A multilingual perspective. Applied Psycholinguistics, 42(1), 19–50.
(2018) Lexical and morphological L3 attrition in an Austrian school context. Rivista di Psicolinguistica Applicata/ Journal of Applied Psycholinguistics, 8(2), 17–36.
Karmiloff-Smith, A.
(1996) Beyond modularity: A developmental perspective on cognitive science. The MIT Press.
Kecskes, I., & Papp, T.
(2000) Foreign language and mother tongue. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kemp, C.
(2007) Strategic processing in grammar learning: Do multilinguals use more strategies?International Journal of Multilingualism, 4(4), 241–261.
Kramsch, C.
(1993) Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford University Press.
Kroll, J., & Bialystok, E.
(2013) Understanding the consequences of bilingualism for language processing and cognition. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 497–514.
Larsen-Freeman, D.
(2014) Ten ‘lessons’ from Complex Dynamic Systems Theory: What is on offer. In Z. Dörnyei, A. Henry, & P. MacIntyre (Eds.), Motivational dynamics in language learning (pp. 11–20). Multilingual Matters.
Lyra, V.
(2009) Constructing academic hierarchies: Teasing and identity work among peers at school. Pragmatics19(3), 449–466.
Mary, L., & Helot, C.
(2022) Multilingual education in formal schooling: Conceptual shifts in theory, policy and practice. In A. Stavans & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of childhood multilingualism (pp. 82–112). Cambridge University Press.
May, S.
(Ed.) (2014) The multilingual turn. Implications for SLA, TESOL and bilingual education. Routledge.
Mitits, L.
(2015) Language learning strategies and multilingualism: Monolingual EFL and multilingual EFL/L2 Greek learners in Greek secondary education. Saita Publications.
Navracsics, J.
(2022) Infant bi- and multilingual development. In A. Stavans & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of childhood multilingualism (pp. 13–37). Cambridge University Press.
Nshiwi, D., & Jessner, U.
(2021) The effect of metalinguistic awareness and the previously learned foreign languages on fourth language acquisition by adult learners. Hungarian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 11(1), 1–27.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
(2005): The definition and selection of key competencies. Executive summary. OECD.
Ortega, L.
(2014) Second language learning explained? SLA across 10 contemporary theories. In B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 245–272). Routledge.
Piccardo, E., Germaine-Rutherford, A., & Lawrence, G.
(Eds.) (2022) Routledge handbook of plurilingual education. Routledge.
Pinto, M. A., Titone, R., & Trusso, F.
(1999) Metalinguistic awareness. Theory, development and measurement instruments. Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali.
Pliatsikas, C.
(2020) Understanding structural plasticity in the bilingual brain: The Dynamic Restructuring Model. Bilingualism, 23(2), 459–471.
Psaltou-Joycey, A., & Kantaridou, Z.
(2009) Plurilingualism, language learning strategy use and learning style preferences. International Journal of Multilingualism, 6(4), 460–474.
Reich, H., & Krumm, H.-J.
(2013) Sprachbildung und Mehrsprachigkeit. Ein Curriculum zur Wahrnehmung und Bewältigung sprachlicher Vielfalt im Unterricht. Waxmann.
Ribot, K. M., & Hoff, E.
(2014) “¿Cómo estas?” “I’m good.” Conversational code-switching is related to profiles of expressive and receptive proficiency in Spanish-English bilingual toddlers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38(4), 333–341.
Schwienbacher, E. D., Quartapelle, F., & Patscheider, F.
(2017) Auf dem Weg zur sprachsensiblen Schule – Das Mehrsprachencurriculum Südtirol. Wolters Kluwer Deutschland.
Slobin, D.
(1978) A case study of early language awareness. In A. Sinclair, R. J. Jarvella, & W. Levelt (Eds.), The child’s conception of language (pp. 45–54). Springer.
Stavans, A., & Jessner, U.
(2022) The Cambridge handbook of childhood multilingualism. Cambridge University Press:.
Vygotsky, L.
(1962) Thought and language. The MIT Press.
Wang, X.-L.
(2022) Multilingualism and language play. In A. Stavans, & U. Jessner (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Child Multilingualism (235–256). Cambridge University Press.
Young, A.
(2022) Being plurilingual in the language classroom. In A. Stavans & U. Jessner (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of child multilingualism (pp. 355–375). Cambridge University Press.