On the need for cross-contextual EMI research: Reports from a tri-context workshop at AILA 2024
The growth of and attention given to English-medium instruction (EMI) and related topics in contemporary higher education research was well-represented at the AILA 2024 World Congress in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Research reports and symposia from around the globe attest to the fact that EMI remains a consistent area of interest and that many questions and research agendas are being engaged in a number of ways and at a range of levels. This paper takes the opportunity offered by one of the AILA 2024 workshops, namely “Comparative guidelines for cross-contextual EMI research: Policies, people, and practices” (Siegel, Kumazawa & Zuaro, 2024Siegel, J., Bjorkman Nylen, B., Kumazawa, M., & Zuaro, B. (2024/08/13) Comparative guidelines for cross-cultural EMI research: Policies, people and practices. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Siegel, J., Bjorkman Nylen, B., Kumazawa, M., & Zuaro, B. (2024/08/13) Comparative guidelines for cross-cultural EMI research: Policies, people and practices. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.), to reflect on some of the key interrogatives that still accompany EMI as an educational approach, regardless of its context of implementation. Set against the backdrop of multiple EMI sessions at the conference, the workshop is foregrounded as an example of successful cross-contextual EMI description, shedding light on the advantages of adopting similar analytical categories in — sometimes very — different contexts. This is done to showcase how structured comparison can facilitate the identification of areas of divergence. In the present paper, then, we argue in favor of clarity and efficiency in EMI contextual description and suggest avenues for future research that could benefit from cross-contextual studies. We do this by recounting our collaborative experiences and articulating when and in what ways aspects of the road-mapping framework (Dafouz & Smit, 2020 (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. ), deployed in the workshop itself, emerged naturally since the beginning of our joint work.
Publication history
Background: Current discussions in EMI research and the AILA 2024 World Congress
As mentioned, many sessions included explicit links to EMI As mentioned, many sessions at the AILA 2024 World Congress included explicit links to EMI, discussing the implementation of EMI at a variety of levels, including within specific societal and institutional contexts, in relation to specific groups of actors (e.g., students and teachers), specific classroom practices, and individual language skills. In terms of broader EMI implications, Ou (2024)Ou, A. (2024, August 14). The sociolinguistic scale (scaling) of digital materiality in academic communication in EMI. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Ou, A. (2024, August 14). The sociolinguistic scale (scaling) of digital materiality in academic communication in EMI. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. introduced a sociolinguistic scale for understanding EMI materials, while Kuteeva and Kaufhold focused on the tensions that sometimes arise when EMI supplants local languages and influences their societal impact. Student preparedness in terms of Lx English language proficiency, a common issue spanning decades of EMI research, continued to be a redundancy (Fraser & Robertson, 2024Fraser, M., & Robertson, C. (2024, August 12). How prepared are they, really? Exploring language preparedness among international science and engineering students in EMI. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Fraser, M., & Robertson, C. (2024, August 12). How prepared are they, really? Exploring language preparedness among international science and engineering students in EMI. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.) as did EMI teacher identity (Gyong & Fanguy, 2024Gyong, E., & Fanguy, M. (2024, August 12). The development of an EMI professional development program at a Korean science and engineering university. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Gyong, E., & Fanguy, M. (2024, August 12). The development of an EMI professional development program at a Korean science and engineering university. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.), professional development (Dang, 2024Dang, S. (2024, August 14). Multilingual practice and multilingual selves: A mixed-method study of EMI international students in Japan. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Dang, S. (2024, August 14). Multilingual practice and multilingual selves: A mixed-method study of EMI international students in Japan. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.), and emotions (Kang & Zhou, 2024Kang, W., & Zhou, T. (2024, August 14). A study on emotions in the development of professional identity of EMI teachers. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Kang, W., & Zhou, T. (2024, August 14). A study on emotions in the development of professional identity of EMI teachers. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.). This clear emphasis on the affordances and tolls EMI can take on the actors involved will likely continue as researchers’ own understanding of the complexities of EMI becomes more nuanced and the field strives to identify and implement strategies to alleviate such issues within the indomitable expansion of EMI worldwide.
Strategies such as translanguaging and multilingual practices received ample attention at the conference, with no fewer than four sessions dedicated to these topics within EMI. Technological impacts, such as access to digital tools and blended learning in EMI, have gained attention. (El Gamal, 2024El Gamal, G. (2024, August 12). The development of a post-graduate blended learning technical communication course in a Gulf EMI engineering university. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.El Gamal, G. (2024, August 12). The development of a post-graduate blended learning technical communication course in a Gulf EMI engineering university. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.). Specific L2 language skills, including listening (Fung, 2024Fung, D. (2024, August 12). Learning to learn in EMI: An evidence-based framework for listening strategy instruction. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Fung, D. (2024, August 12). Learning to learn in EMI: An evidence-based framework for listening strategy instruction. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.) and writing (Mendoza, 2024Mendoza, L. (2024, August 13). Understanding master’s thesis writers in a multilingual EMI context. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Mendoza, L. (2024, August 13). Understanding master’s thesis writers in a multilingual EMI context. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.) were also the subjects of dedicated presentations, providing data from classroom-based research involving student input. These presentations offered valuable insights spanning the globe, from Asia to the Gulf Region to Europe to Australia, reinforcing the notion that EMI is at the forefront of global higher and secondary education research, not only in relation to the variety of geographic contexts represented, but also in terms of the inclusion of different levels of education (e.g., undergraduate, post-graduate and, to a lesser extent, high school levels) and focus on different sets of EMI actors (e.g., policy makers, teachers, students).
From a broader perspective on EMI studies, Rose and McKinley (2018)Rose, H., & McKinley, J. (2018) Japan’s English-medium instruction initiatives and the globalization of higher education. Higher Education, 75 , (pp. 111–129). Rose, H., & McKinley, J. (2018) Japan’s English-medium instruction initiatives and the globalization of higher education. Higher Education, 75, (pp. 111–129). called for critical reading of EMI research, emphasizing the need for objective tests of the efficiency and effectiveness of EMI on language proficiency. They further pointed out that much EMI research is limited to case studies in single institutions, a limitation that has been highlighted in previous commentary as well (see Lasagabaster, 2022Lasagabaster, D. (2022) English-medium instruction in higher education. Cambridge University Press. Lasagabaster, D. (2022) English-medium instruction in higher education. Cambridge University Press. ). As highlighted by the workshop described in this paper, EMI research that stretches across geographic borders, and which provides sufficient contextual description, will help inform practitioners and researchers as well as raise new questions. Rose and McKinley (2024) also challenged the widely accepted and perpetuated view that EMI is “inevitable” and an “unstoppable train” (Macaro, 2019Macaro, E. (2019) English medium instruction: Global views and countries in focus. Language Teaching, 52 (2), 231–232. Macaro, E. (2019) English medium instruction: Global views and countries in focus. Language Teaching, 52(2), 231–232. , p. 232), descriptions that are often found in the literature. A more tempered view of EMI, one that is critical of such as? and that considers the positioning of EMI in the context of national education systems, may benefit the field moving forward. This point was perhaps the common backdrop to various presentations dealing with the complex positioning of EMI in relation to questions of social, linguistic, and cultural justice. Indeed, the question of social and educational (in)justice of EMI has been examined in the context of an Italian court case against the exclusive adoption of EMI (Zuaro et al. 2024Zuaro, B., Yuksel, D., Wingrove, P., Nao, M. & Hultgren, A.K.(2024/08/13). The (in)justice of EMI: A critical discourse analysis of key stakeholders' views on the Polytechnic University of Milan court case. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Zuaro, B., Yuksel, D., Wingrove, P., Nao, M. & Hultgren, A.K.(2024/08/13). The (in)justice of EMI: A critical discourse analysis of key stakeholders' views on the Polytechnic University of Milan court case. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. ), as well as discussed in terms of the sociolinguistic concerns of linguistic imperialism, stereotyping, and a seemingly purported belief that “Western-style education is superior” (Galloway et al., 2017Galloway, N., Kriukow, J., & Numajiri, T. (2017) Internationalisation, higher education and the growing demand for English: An investigation into the English medium of instruction (EMI) movement in China and Japan. ELT Research Papers, 17, 1–44. h035_eltra_internationalisation_he_and_the_growing_demand_for_english_a4_final_webGalloway, N., Kriukow, J., & Numajiri, T. (2017) Internationalisation, higher education and the growing demand for English: An investigation into the English medium of instruction (EMI) movement in China and Japan. ELT Research Papers, 17, 1–44. h035_eltra_internationalisation_he_and_the_growing_demand_for_english_a4_final_web, p. 8). These issues bring into question the very core of EMI conceptualization as a tool for international, accessible education, highlighting the need for renewed theoretical tools if a decolonial approach to language and culture is to be achieved in EMI (Ishikawa, 2024Ishikawa, T. (2024, August 15). A Decolonial Approach to Language and Culture for Globalised EMI. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Ishikawa, T. (2024, August 15). A Decolonial Approach to Language and Culture for Globalised EMI. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.).
This summary may give an idea of the heterogeneity of questions raised about EMI, both at the AILA 2024 World Congress and within the wider body of literature. This may hardly be surprising, considering that even on the matter of its definition, and regarding its conceptual and practical features, consensus has not truly been reached around EMI (Dafouz & Smit, 2020 (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. ; Galloway, 2020Galloway, N. (Ed.) (2020) English in higher education-English medium: Part 1: Literature Review. British Council.Galloway, N. (Ed.) (2020) English in higher education-English medium: Part 1: Literature Review. British Council. Jenkins & Mauranen, 2019Jenkins, J., & Mauranen, A. (Eds.) (2019) Linguistic diversity On the EMI campus: Insider accounts of the use of English and other languages in universities within Asia, Australasia, and Europe. Routledge. Jenkins, J., & Mauranen, A. (Eds.) (2019) Linguistic diversity On the EMI campus: Insider accounts of the use of English and other languages in universities within Asia, Australasia, and Europe. Routledge. ; Rose at al., 2023Rose, H., Macaro, E., Sahan, K., Aizawa, I., Zhou, S., & Wei, M. (2023) Defining English medium instruction: Striving for comparative equivalence. Language Teaching, 56 (4), 539–550. Rose, H., Macaro, E., Sahan, K., Aizawa, I., Zhou, S., & Wei, M. (2023) Defining English medium instruction: Striving for comparative equivalence. Language Teaching, 56(4), 539–550. ). As a result of such heterogeneity, the usefulness, utility, and transferability of single studies may at times appear unsubstantial. However, even comparative research remains modest in EMI and, as Rose and McKinley (2024) (2024, August 15) The critical turn in English medium instruction research. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. (2024, August 15) The critical turn in English medium instruction research. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. observe, citing Macaro et al. (2018)Macaro, E., Curle, S., Pun, J., An, J., & Dearden, J. (2018) A systematic review of English medium instruction in higher education. Language Teaching, 51 (1), 36–76. Macaro, E., Curle, S., Pun, J., An, J., & Dearden, J. (2018) A systematic review of English medium instruction in higher education. Language Teaching, 51(1), 36–76. , “the almost total absence of any comparative studies among institutions and/or among countries (except for the issue of EMI growth) means that the rigour offered by comparative education methodology is largely absent” (p. 64). There are exceptions to this lack of comparative research (Baker & Hüttner, 2017, 2019Baker, W., & Hüttner, J. (2019) “We are not the language police”: Comparing multilingual EMI programmes in Europe and Asia. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 29 (1), 78–94. Baker, W., & Hüttner, J. (2019) “We are not the language police”: Comparing multilingual EMI programmes in Europe and Asia. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 29(1), 78–94. ; Molino et al., 2022Molino, A., Dimova, S., Kling, J., & Larsen, S. (2022) The evolution of EMI research in European higher education. Routledge. Molino, A., Dimova, S., Kling, J., & Larsen, S. (2022) The evolution of EMI research in European higher education. Routledge. ), but they remain in the minority. This, along with the claim made by Rose and McKinley (2024) (2024, August 15) The critical turn in English medium instruction research. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. (2024, August 15) The critical turn in English medium instruction research. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. reported above, attests to the fact that EMI research that stretches across geographic borders, and which provides sufficient contextual description, will help inform practitioners and researchers as well as raise new questions.
While research struggles to keep up, EMI courses and programs continue to expand from well-established traditions in some parts of the world to areas with less EMI experience. If the “unstoppable train” appears to be slowing, it continues moving forward (Wingrove et al., acceptedWingrove, P., Zuaro, B., Yuksel, D., Nao, M. & Hultgren, A. K. accepted). ‘English-medium instruction in European higher education: Measurement validity and the state of play in 2023/2024’, Applied Linguistics.Wingrove, P., Zuaro, B., Yuksel, D., Nao, M. & Hultgren, A. K. accepted). ‘English-medium instruction in European higher education: Measurement validity and the state of play in 2023/2024’, Applied Linguistics.). The prevalent orientation in EMI research has been one to acknowledge that EMI comes in a variety of configurations set within specific national and individual circumstances (Lasagabaster & Doiz, 2021Lasagabaster, D., & Doiz, A. (Eds.) (2021) Language use in English-medium instruction at university. Routledge. Lasagabaster, D., & Doiz, A. (Eds.) (2021) Language use in English-medium instruction at university. Routledge. ). These various contextual factors are often recognized in the Introduction and/or Background sections of each publication; however, they are arguably seldom presented in ways that facilitate valuable comparisons a) between different pieces of research, b) between different geographic contexts, or c) between the reader’s own context and that in which the immediate publication is set. The need for solutions to the challenges of cross-contextual EMI comparisons? is further attested by the emergence of comprehensive frameworks for EMI (e.g., Dafouz & Smit, 2020 (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. ; Molino et al., 2022Molino, A., Dimova, S., Kling, J., & Larsen, S. (2022) The evolution of EMI research in European higher education. Routledge. Molino, A., Dimova, S., Kling, J., & Larsen, S. (2022) The evolution of EMI research in European higher education. Routledge. ), meant to facilitate understanding and comparability of research conducted in various local situations. We argue that, precisely because local contexts are “highly varied, reflecting a diversity of beliefs and practices concerning the economic, political, ideological and cultural role of higher education” (Baker & Hüttner, 2019Baker, W., & Hüttner, J. (2019) “We are not the language police”: Comparing multilingual EMI programmes in Europe and Asia. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 29 (1), 78–94. Baker, W., & Hüttner, J. (2019) “We are not the language police”: Comparing multilingual EMI programmes in Europe and Asia. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 29(1), 78–94. , p. 501), increased attention to and systematization of contextual description can make theoretical and practical work on EMI more meaningful and informative.
As a practical example, we discuss using the ROAD-MAPPING framework (Dafouz & Smit, 2020 (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. ) in our AILA 2024 workshop, which helped us clearly present our study contexts to diverse participants. In an international event such as the AILA World Congress, attendees come from wide-ranging institutional backgrounds set within diverse national and regional educational climates. Such a massive assemblage warrants some type of obligatory description so that colleagues can quickly and clearly comprehend similarities and differences between presented research and ideas from one context and their own. ROAD-MAPPING, which stands for Roles of English, Academic Disciplines, (language) Management, Agents, Practices & Processes, Internationalization and Glocalization, supported us in this process. It should be noted that, as observed by Dafouz et al. (2016)Dafouz, E., Hüttner, J., & Smit, U. (2016) University teachers’ beliefs of language and content integration in English-medium education in multilingual university settings. Conceptualising integration in CLIL and multilingual education, 123–143. Dafouz, E., Hüttner, J., & Smit, U. (2016) University teachers’ beliefs of language and content integration in English-medium education in multilingual university settings. Conceptualising integration in CLIL and multilingual education, 123–143. , each of the areas articulated in ROAD-MAPPING can serve as “points of entry” into research (p. 126) and not all factors may be of equal concern in every study. Further, we fully acknowledge, following Dafouz and Smit (2020) (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. , that description of certain contextual factors may be more or less relevant depending on research questions and/or methodological choices. Next to ROAD-MAPPING, another influential work that we drew upon was Ou et al. (2022)Ou, A. W., Hult, F. M., & Gu, M. M. (2022) Language policy and planning for English-medium instruction in higher education. Journal of English-Medium Instruction, 1 (1), 7–28. Ou, A. W., Hult, F. M., & Gu, M. M. (2022) Language policy and planning for English-medium instruction in higher education. Journal of English-Medium Instruction, 1(1), 7–28. , that make strong distinctions between and provide thought-provoking questions for different actors within EMI. These include questions for administrators to consider, such as how language proficiency for enrollees on EMI programs is defined, standardized and measured as well as queries for teachers about the availability of pedagogic support for teaching in EMI. EMI students are also encouraged to mull the role they want / expect Lx English to occupy in their tertiary education and the types of professional situations in which they will encounter English after graduation. By specifying questions targeting these different roles within EMI, Ou et al. (2022)Ou, A. W., Hult, F. M., & Gu, M. M. (2022) Language policy and planning for English-medium instruction in higher education. Journal of English-Medium Instruction, 1 (1), 7–28. Ou, A. W., Hult, F. M., & Gu, M. M. (2022) Language policy and planning for English-medium instruction in higher education. Journal of English-Medium Instruction, 1(1), 7–28. clearly emphasize the notion that EMI is complex, involving various stakeholders with varying amounts of influence on the implementation of EMI at the institutional level.
In our case, some aspects of ROAD-MAPPING emerged and were consistently reinforced throughout our three-year collaboration, which began in 2021, at a time when our knowledge of each other’s respective EMI contexts was limited. With funding support from Japan and Sweden, our international team consisted of scholars from both of these countries as well as Italy. At the beginning of our collaboration, important points when describing our contexts to others in the group, who naturally asked questions and sought to determine how, where, and to what extent one context was similar to and/or distinct from another. The workshop itself is the result of multiple research meetings, creation of joint data collection tools for EMI student and teacher surveys and interviews, collaborative analysis, and contextual comparisons, which included on-site meetings among the research team and classroom observations in Japan and Sweden. Our workshop was intended to share the outcomes of the process of finding tangible and efficient ways to establish a common ground where different issues and agendas arising from the three contexts can be compared, discussed, and examined. In the next section, we discuss the workshop in detail, emphasizing how the recourse to common analytical categories did not compress our ability to investigate each particular context, but rather enhanced our ability to conduct and share the comparison.
Cross contextual EMI research: Japan, Italy and Sweden
As mentioned, the cross-contextual EMI workshop at AILA (Siegel, et al., 2024Siegel, J., Bjorkman Nylen, B., Kumazawa, M., & Zuaro, B. (2024/08/13) Comparative guidelines for cross-cultural EMI research: Policies, people and practices. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Siegel, J., Bjorkman Nylen, B., Kumazawa, M., & Zuaro, B. (2024/08/13) Comparative guidelines for cross-cultural EMI research: Policies, people and practices. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.) aimed to place this issue of transferability and contextual understanding at the forefront with the intention to make EMI research more transparent and increase the value of important work set in and comparable across multiple contexts. After first introducing ROAD-MAPPING and outlining the key categories that proved crucial in the presenters’ collaborative cross-contextual EMI research, our workshop invited participants to contribute with their context-relevant input. The such as? raised by the authors at the workshop were intended to serve as a set of guidelines to encourage various stakeholders in EMI, including EMI instructors, L2 educators, curriculum designers, administrators, and policy makers to address such as? so that more valuable comparisons, insights, and advancements in the field can be made. Initial information was separated into three categories: policy, people, and practices and processes, in some ways reminiscent of certain parts of ROAD-MAPPING; however, this interactive process also helped concretize certain conceptual aspects, thereby illustrating which parts of that framework may be more immediately relevant than others, although relevancy clearly depends on specific research objectives and can vary from case to case. The first of these (policy) covers curriculum documents and official EMI directives outlined at national and institutional levels. The second (people) addresses individual teacher and student factors, including language proficiency levels in the macro-skills, motivation, and comfort level. The third (practices and processes) includes decisions and actions made and taken on the parts of both teachers and students within the respective EMI settings.
We opened the workshop by discussing the aforementioned categories (i.e., policy, people, practices, and processes) in relation to the three distinct EMI contexts that have been at the center of our collaborative work: Japan, Sweden, and Italy. These three contexts are generally distinguishable within EMI in at least two ways: (1) the maturity of EMI within the context and (2) the average L2 English language proficiency expectations within each. In terms of maturity, Sweden, situated in Northern Europe, has a relatively long history of EMI of several decades (Block & Moncada-Comas, 2022Block, D., & Moncada-Comas, B. (2022) English-medium instruction in higher education and the ELT gaze: STEM lecturers’ self-positioning as NOT English language teachers. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25 (2), 401–417. Block, D., & Moncada-Comas, B. (2022) English-medium instruction in higher education and the ELT gaze: STEM lecturers’ self-positioning as NOT English language teachers. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(2), 401–417. ), while Italy has seen a somewhat more gradual growth of EMI (Broggini & Costa, 2017Broggini, S., & Costa, F. (2017) A survey of English-medium instruction in Italian higher education: An updated perspective from 2012 to 2015. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education, 5 (2), 238–264. Broggini, S., & Costa, F. (2017) A survey of English-medium instruction in Italian higher education: An updated perspective from 2012 to 2015. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education, 5(2), 238–264. ; Wingrove et al., acceptedWingrove, P., Zuaro, B., Yuksel, D., Nao, M. & Hultgren, A. K. accepted). ‘English-medium instruction in European higher education: Measurement validity and the state of play in 2023/2024’, Applied Linguistics.Wingrove, P., Zuaro, B., Yuksel, D., Nao, M. & Hultgren, A. K. accepted). ‘English-medium instruction in European higher education: Measurement validity and the state of play in 2023/2024’, Applied Linguistics.), and Japan has taken rapid and recent steps to adapt EMI to address societal and internationalization objectives (e.g., Siegel, Kumazawa, Brewster & Björkman, 2024Siegel, J., Kumazawa, M., Brewster, D., & Björkman Nylén, B. (2024) Similarities and differences between EMI students’ experiences in Japan and Sweden. The Language Teacher, 48(4), 3-12. Siegel, J., Kumazawa, M., Brewster, D., & Björkman Nylén, B. (2024) Similarities and differences between EMI students’ experiences in Japan and Sweden. The Language Teacher, 48(4), 3-12. ; Bradford & Brown, 2018b (2018b) Introduction: English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education, In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. xvii–xxiii). Multilingual Matters. (2018b) Introduction: English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education, In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. xvii–xxiii). Multilingual Matters.; Rose & McKinley, 2018Rose, H., & McKinley, J. (2018) Japan’s English-medium instruction initiatives and the globalization of higher education. Higher Education, 75 , (pp. 111–129). Rose, H., & McKinley, J. (2018) Japan’s English-medium instruction initiatives and the globalization of higher education. Higher Education, 75, (pp. 111–129). ). The general L2 proficiency within each country also varies widely; for instance, according to Education First’sEducation First n.d.) English Proficiency Index. https://www.ef.com/wwen/epi/Education First n.d.) English Proficiency Index. https://www.ef.com/wwen/epi/ English Proficiency Index (2023), Sweden is ranked #6 of 113 countries in the “very high” category, with Italy ranking #35 in the “moderate” category, and Japan at #87 in “low proficiency” group. While this broad-brush ranking may be anecdotal and somewhat imprecise and ignore the meso- and micro-level diversity within each country, it nevertheless provides a comparative backdrop and demonstrates the range of EMI contexts represented in our workshop. Furthermore, international policies such as the Bologna Process of 1999 impacts the two European countries involved, while no such unifying doctrines apply for the Asian representative. In addition to proficiency level, the extent to which a context is more or less “internationally oriented” (Dafouz et al., 2016Dafouz, E., Hüttner, J., & Smit, U. (2016) University teachers’ beliefs of language and content integration in English-medium education in multilingual university settings. Conceptualising integration in CLIL and multilingual education, 123–143. Dafouz, E., Hüttner, J., & Smit, U. (2016) University teachers’ beliefs of language and content integration in English-medium education in multilingual university settings. Conceptualising integration in CLIL and multilingual education, 123–143. ) should be considered at the macro- and meso-levels.
Drawing on analytical concepts employed in EMI (see Ou et al., 2022Ou, A. W., Hult, F. M., & Gu, M. M. (2022) Language policy and planning for English-medium instruction in higher education. Journal of English-Medium Instruction, 1 (1), 7–28. Ou, A. W., Hult, F. M., & Gu, M. M. (2022) Language policy and planning for English-medium instruction in higher education. Journal of English-Medium Instruction, 1(1), 7–28. ; Rose, 2021Rose, H. (2021) Students’ language-related challenges of studying through English: What EMI teachers can do. In D. Lasagabaster, & A. Doiz (Eds.), Language use in English-medium instruction at university (pp. 145–166). Routledge. Rose, H. (2021) Students’ language-related challenges of studying through English: What EMI teachers can do. In D. Lasagabaster, & A. Doiz (Eds.), Language use in English-medium instruction at university (pp. 145–166). Routledge. ), and employing the three aforementioned regions as examples, the workshop explored how the guidelines for description can generate specific and meaningful information about certain aspects of EMI contexts, as illustrated in the contextual comparisons below. The theme of the workshop addressed calls in the literature that highlight the large variation and potential divergence in approaches to and descriptions of EMI research, which can range from works that gather research from around the world (e.g., Griffiths, 2023Griffiths, C. (Ed.) (2023) The practice of English as a medium of instruction (EMI) around the world. Springer. Griffiths, C. (Ed.) (2023) The practice of English as a medium of instruction (EMI) around the world. Springer. ; Lasagabaster & Doiz, 2021Lasagabaster, D., & Doiz, A. (Eds.) (2021) Language use in English-medium instruction at university. Routledge. Lasagabaster, D., & Doiz, A. (Eds.) (2021) Language use in English-medium instruction at university. Routledge. ) to more regional or local descriptions, sometimes published in-house (e.g., Irie et al., 2020Irie, K., MacGregor, L., Marchand, T., O’Neill, T., & Fujita, R. (2020) Report on EMI, CLIL and bridging programmes in higher education in Asia: Application and practice. Occasional Papers No. 69: Gakushuin University.Irie, K., MacGregor, L., Marchand, T., O’Neill, T., & Fujita, R. (2020) Report on EMI, CLIL and bridging programmes in higher education in Asia: Application and practice. Occasional Papers No. 69: Gakushuin University.) as well as calls for increased rigour (e.g., Balter et al., 2023Bälter, O., Kann, V., Mutimukwe, C., & Malmström, H. (2023) English-medium instruction and impact on academic performance: A randomized control study. Applied Linguistics Review. Bälter, O., Kann, V., Mutimukwe, C., & Malmström, H. (2023) English-medium instruction and impact on academic performance: A randomized control study. Applied Linguistics Review. ). Part of this increased rigour includes common standards for contextual description, which we exemplified via the emerging discussion and comparative points generated during our collaboration. We see consistent contextual description as a necessity of EMI research in order to make it as fruitful and impactful as possible. As noted by Lasagabaster (2022)Lasagabaster, D. (2022) English-medium instruction in higher education. Cambridge University Press. Lasagabaster, D. (2022) English-medium instruction in higher education. Cambridge University Press. , many key works on EMI “focus…on a single institution or country” (p. 47), an observation that our joint work seeks to address. One notable exception is Baker and Hüttner (2017) who, as we did, purposefully selected contexts in distinct geographic areas (in their case, continental Europe (Austria), Asia (Thailand), and an Anglophone island nation (the UK)). In our case, Southern (Italy) and Northern (Sweden) Europe are represented, as well as Asia (Japan).
Policies in EMI in the three contexts
The policy category can include institutional concerns as well as more broad societal issues, and it is the area in which “Roles of English” (the first main point in the ROAD-MAPPING framework) comes into play. At the societal level, roles of English can include the functions of English outside the walls of the institution itself, as well as its relationship with the language of the environment (e.g., where English might be read, spoken, or heard, whether media input is dubbed, subtitled, etc.). The institutional level narrows to focus on English as either a subject itself or a medium of subject learning (or both); it also concerns the presence of English as a communicative language within the university itself and for external communication (Dafouz & Smit, 2020 (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. ; Kuteeva & Kaufhold, 2024Kuteeva, M., & Kaufhold, K. (2024) An ‘E’for ‘elite’in EMI? Global, local and elite dimensions in the promotion of English-medium university programmes. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1–17. Kuteeva, M., & Kaufhold, K. (2024) An ‘E’for ‘elite’in EMI? Global, local and elite dimensions in the promotion of English-medium university programmes. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1–17. ) (e.g., with other universities in the same national context or in other countries, via university websites and homepages, etc.). The reflection questions for administrators posed by Ou et al. (2022)Ou, A. W., Hult, F. M., & Gu, M. M. (2022) Language policy and planning for English-medium instruction in higher education. Journal of English-Medium Instruction, 1 (1), 7–28. Ou, A. W., Hult, F. M., & Gu, M. M. (2022) Language policy and planning for English-medium instruction in higher education. Journal of English-Medium Instruction, 1(1), 7–28. include goals for EMI implementation, implicit and explicit language policies, and amount of leeway given to “international users of English” (p. 25). Other policy-related questions in terms of overarching curriculum design, prerequisite L2 English proficiency levels, and expectations placed on teaching duties vis-a-vis research output are also evident in the literature (Yuan et al., 2022Yuan, R., Chen, Y., & Peng, J. (2022) Understanding university teachers’ beliefs and practice in using English as a medium of instruction. Teaching in Higher Education, 27 (2), 233–248. Yuan, R., Chen, Y., & Peng, J. (2022) Understanding university teachers’ beliefs and practice in using English as a medium of instruction. Teaching in Higher Education, 27(2), 233–248. ).
In terms of our collaborative meetings, the policy category was frequently discussed, in relation to relevant government documents, the status of various official and unofficial languages within the countries, legal cases involving EMI, and media coverage related to English and its role in education. The ways in which universities promote and market their EMI programs on university websites and social media also provides perspectives on how they implicitly and explicitly position English (Kuteeva & Kaufhold, 2024Kuteeva, M., & Kaufhold, K. (2024) An ‘E’for ‘elite’in EMI? Global, local and elite dimensions in the promotion of English-medium university programmes. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1–17. Kuteeva, M., & Kaufhold, K. (2024) An ‘E’for ‘elite’in EMI? Global, local and elite dimensions in the promotion of English-medium university programmes. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1–17. ). Demographics related to enrollment in higher education, such as the declining population in Japan and recent immigration to Sweden, also helped inform the group. In terms of institutional norms, we discussed degrees of transparency regarding English in university curriculum steering documents, funding resources in terms of national and local monetary initiatives to promote EMI, and university support systems in place (or not) meant to aid teachers in delivering their courses in L2 English and students studying in such courses (e.g., language cafes, writing centers, etc.). Studies have, for example, mentioned teacher development workshops and faculty recognition in the forms of time and/or financial compensation for EMI teachers (Moll, 2020; Yuan et al., 2022Yuan, R., Chen, Y., & Peng, J. (2022) Understanding university teachers’ beliefs and practice in using English as a medium of instruction. Teaching in Higher Education, 27 (2), 233–248. Yuan, R., Chen, Y., & Peng, J. (2022) Understanding university teachers’ beliefs and practice in using English as a medium of instruction. Teaching in Higher Education, 27(2), 233–248. ).
The contexts were introduced in alphabetical order in the workshop, starting with Italy, which was described as a “medium EMI context” by European standards, with around 50% of universities offering EMI (Wingrove et al., acceptedWingrove, P., Zuaro, B., Yuksel, D., Nao, M. & Hultgren, A. K. accepted). ‘English-medium instruction in European higher education: Measurement validity and the state of play in 2023/2024’, Applied Linguistics.Wingrove, P., Zuaro, B., Yuksel, D., Nao, M. & Hultgren, A. K. accepted). ‘English-medium instruction in European higher education: Measurement validity and the state of play in 2023/2024’, Applied Linguistics.). Legal frameworks protect L1 Italian in higher education, and despite institutional (and to an extent national) policies to promote EMI on the grounds of internationalization, 100% EMI degrees are technically illegal, as they were deemed to penalize the national language and access to education. In Japan, around 40% of universities offer EMI courses (MEXT, 2023MEXT (2023) Reiwa 2-nendo no daigaku ni okeru kyouiku naiyou-tou no kaikaku joukyou ni tsuite [About the reforms of the educational content at universities in 2020]. Retrieved from https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/daigaku/04052801/1417336_00009.htmMEXT (2023) Reiwa 2-nendo no daigaku ni okeru kyouiku naiyou-tou no kaikaku joukyou ni tsuite [About the reforms of the educational content at universities in 2020]. Retrieved from https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/daigaku/04052801/1417336_00009.htm), but the number of students studying in EMI remains limited. Recognizing the need to internationalize the country’s university campuses, the Japanese government has provided large scale grants to “selected” universities to promote EMI (e.g., Aizawa & McKinley, 2020Aizawa, I., & McKinley, J. (2020) EMI challenges in Japan’s internationalization of higher education. In H. Bowles & A. C. Murphy (Eds.), English-medium instruction and the internationalization of universities (pp. 27–48). Palgrave Macmillan. Aizawa, I., & McKinley, J. (2020) EMI challenges in Japan’s internationalization of higher education. In H. Bowles & A. C. Murphy (Eds.), English-medium instruction and the internationalization of universities (pp. 27–48). Palgrave Macmillan. ; Rose & McKinley, 2018Rose, H., & McKinley, J. (2018) Japan’s English-medium instruction initiatives and the globalization of higher education. Higher Education, 75 , (pp. 111–129). Rose, H., & McKinley, J. (2018) Japan’s English-medium instruction initiatives and the globalization of higher education. Higher Education, 75, (pp. 111–129). ), which has also been used as a marketing tool to attract local Japanese students beyond the scheme of these governmental grants (e.g., Siegel, et al., 2024Siegel, J., Bjorkman Nylen, B., Kumazawa, M., & Zuaro, B. (2024/08/13) Comparative guidelines for cross-cultural EMI research: Policies, people and practices. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Siegel, J., Bjorkman Nylen, B., Kumazawa, M., & Zuaro, B. (2024/08/13) Comparative guidelines for cross-cultural EMI research: Policies, people and practices. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.; Hashimoto, 2018Hashimoto, H. (2018) Government policy driving English-medium instruction at Japanese universities: Responding to a competitiveness crisis in a globalizing world. In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. 14–31). : Multilingual Matters.Hashimoto, H. (2018) Government policy driving English-medium instruction at Japanese universities: Responding to a competitiveness crisis in a globalizing world. In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. 14–31). : Multilingual Matters.; Kumazawa & Brewster, 2021Kumazawa, M. & Brewster, D. (2021) A study of student and teacher perspectives on perceived benefits of EMI: A preliminary analysis. JAAL in JACET Proceedings, 3, 30-37.Kumazawa, M. & Brewster, D. (2021) A study of student and teacher perspectives on perceived benefits of EMI: A preliminary analysis. JAAL in JACET Proceedings, 3, 30-37.). However, this rather rushed implementation of EMI is seen as a “simple and cheap solution to the challenge of internationalization” (Bradford & Brown, 2018aBradford, A., & Brown, H. (2018a) Final thoughts: Have we seen this before? In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. 283–288). Multilingual Matters.Bradford, A., & Brown, H. (2018a) Final thoughts: Have we seen this before? In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. 283–288). Multilingual Matters., p. 286). It also reflects explicit neoliberal concerns related to language choice and education (Gabriels & Wilkinson, 2023; Hult, 2017Hult, F. M. (2017) More than a lingua franca: Functions of English in a globalised educational language policy. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 30 (3), 265–282. Hult, F. M. (2017) More than a lingua franca: Functions of English in a globalised educational language policy. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 30(3), 265–282. ), which are to some extent more implicit in the European countries than in Asia. Meanwhile, Sweden has seen a relatively long tradition of EMI, similar to that of other countries in Scandinavia, following the Bologna Declaration in 1999. Despite an established presence of EMI in Sweden, (e.g., Kuteeva, 2020Kuteeva, M. (2020) If not English, then what? Unpacking language hierarchies at university. In M. Kuteeva, K. Kaufhold, & N. Hynninen (Eds.). Language perceptions and practices in multilingual universities (p. 27–55). Palgrave Macmillan. Kuteeva, M. (2020) If not English, then what? Unpacking language hierarchies at university. In M. Kuteeva, K. Kaufhold, & N. Hynninen (Eds.). Language perceptions and practices in multilingual universities (p. 27–55). Palgrave Macmillan. ; Mälmström & Pecorari, 2022Malmström, H., & Pecorari, D. (2022) Språkval och internationalisering: Svenskans och engelskans roll inom forskning och högre utbildning [language choice and internationalisation: The role of Swedish and English in research and higher education]. The Language Council of Sweden.Malmström, H., & Pecorari, D. (2022) Språkval och internationalisering: Svenskans och engelskans roll inom forskning och högre utbildning [language choice and internationalisation: The role of Swedish and English in research and higher education]. The Language Council of Sweden.), counterarguments in favor of university education in L1 Swedish have been expressed (Håkansson & Svensson, 2024Håkansson, O., & Svensson, P. (2024) På engelska förstår jag ungefär. [In English, I can understand approximately]. Kartonnage.Håkansson, O., & Svensson, P. (2024) På engelska förstår jag ungefär. [In English, I can understand approximately]. Kartonnage.). These descriptions about the three distinctive contexts also relate to findings from Baker and Hüttner’s (2017) research, in which English was identified as a target of learning in and of itself in Thailand, a tool for learning content in Austria, and an ambiguous mix of both target and tool evident in their data from the UK.
People in EMI in the three contexts
The next category of EMI description covered in the workshop was that of people, or actors, involved in EMI. Dafouz and Smit (2020) (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. observe that different social players, embodying various levels of power and influence, who operate within hierarchical levels at institutions, affect and are affected by EMI decisions. These agents can include politicians, university leadership, departmental directors, course developers, administrators, students, and teachers. Here, an important distinction is recognized between content and language teachers, with the majority of EMI teachers generally viewing themselves as content teachers (e.g., Airey, 2012Airey, J. (2012) I don’t teach language. The linguistic attitudes of physics lecturers in Sweden. AILA Review, 25 (25), 64–79. Airey, J. (2012) I don’t teach language. The linguistic attitudes of physics lecturers in Sweden. AILA Review, 25(25), 64–79. ; Block & Moncada-Comas, 2022Block, D., & Moncada-Comas, B. (2022) English-medium instruction in higher education and the ELT gaze: STEM lecturers’ self-positioning as NOT English language teachers. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25 (2), 401–417. Block, D., & Moncada-Comas, B. (2022) English-medium instruction in higher education and the ELT gaze: STEM lecturers’ self-positioning as NOT English language teachers. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(2), 401–417. ). Understanding how teachers position themselves in relation to language of instruction reveals where they likely place emphasis on their pedagogical decision making and efforts to develop disciplinary literacy among their audiences. Students in turn bring wide ranging levels of language proficiency, academic acumen, linguistic resources, and motivation to EMI (e.g., Siegel, 2023 (2023) Student learning online in a second language: Accounting for student voices. Reports on Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 2. Centre for the Advancement of University Teaching: Stockholm University. ISSN: 2003-1688. Available at: https://su.figshare.com/projects/TLHE_reports/30437 (2023) Student learning online in a second language: Accounting for student voices. Reports on Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 2. Centre for the Advancement of University Teaching: Stockholm University. ISSN: 2003-1688. Available at: https://su.figshare.com/projects/TLHE_reports/30437).
The main emerging topics from our collaborative discussions related to teachers and students in EMI. These are the end users and those who are intimately involved in EMI on a daily basis; thus, ensuring that readers/users of EMI research understand who, in general, they are and what they experience. We found ourselves describing linguistic and general educational backgrounds, motivations for EMI, and emotions when working within EMI, which itself was the specific topic of a research presentation at the AILA 2024 World Congress (Kang & Zhou, 2024Kang, W., & Zhou, T. (2024, August 14). A study on emotions in the development of professional identity of EMI teachers. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Kang, W., & Zhou, T. (2024, August 14). A study on emotions in the development of professional identity of EMI teachers. 21st AILA World Congress: Linguistic Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Sustainability. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.). These researchers focused on the emotional evolutionary trajectories of EMI teachers, monitoring feelings of satisfaction and challenges within EMI teacher development.
In Italy, qualitative research about lecturers engaging in EMI does report positive attitudes toward the practice, though challenges such as fatigue and decreasing self-confidence are also noted (e.g., Zuaro 2022Zuaro, B. (2022) English-medium Instruction through the lens of discipline and culture: Lecturer's beliefs and reported practices. Apples - Journal of applied language studies, 16(1), 113–131.Zuaro, B. (2022) English-medium Instruction through the lens of discipline and culture: Lecturer's beliefs and reported practices. Apples - Journal of applied language studies, 16(1), 113–131.; Rowland & Murray, 2019Rowland, L., & Murray, N. (2019) Finding their feet: lecturers’ and students’ perceptions of English as a medium of instruction in a recently-implemented Master’s programme at an Italian university. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 41 (3), 232–245. Rowland, L., & Murray, N. (2019) Finding their feet: lecturers’ and students’ perceptions of English as a medium of instruction in a recently-implemented Master’s programme at an Italian university. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 41(3), 232–245. ). The vast majority of EMI teachers are Italian, and they typically see themselves as content experts and not language teachers. The ability for these teachers to teach in English is assumed, often on the basis of previous education/work abroad or the tendency to publish in English, although some institutions offer occasional support. Overall, there is evidence that content teachers from different disciplinary backgrounds all have to make content adaptations in their EMI courses, compared to the L1-medium ones (Zuaro 2023 (2023) Content adaptations in English-medium Instruction: Comparing L1 and English-medium lectures. English for Specific Purposes, 70, 267–279. (2023) Content adaptations in English-medium Instruction: Comparing L1 and English-medium lectures. English for Specific Purposes, 70, 267–279. ). This question of insufficient linguistic and/or pedagogic support for content experts who operate in EMI has been noted in the literature (e.g., Siegel, 2020Siegel, J. (2020) Comprehension in English medium instruction (EMI) lectures: On the impact of lecturer L2 English use. Language Learning in Higher Education. 10(1), 73-91. Siegel, J. (2020) Comprehension in English medium instruction (EMI) lectures: On the impact of lecturer L2 English use. Language Learning in Higher Education. 10(1), 73-91. , 2022 (2022) Comparing teacher priorities and student uptake in EMI lectures: An exploratory study. Languages: Special issues on Language Practices in English Classrooms, 7(1), 39-55. (2022) Comparing teacher priorities and student uptake in EMI lectures: An exploratory study. Languages: Special issues on Language Practices in English Classrooms, 7(1), 39-55. ; Moll et al., 2020Moll, T., Norte Fernánadex-Pacheco, N., & Beltran-Palanques, V. (2020) How do trained English-medium instruction (EMI) lecturers combine multimodal ensembles to engage their students? In R. Roig-VilaLa (Ed.), La docencia en la Enseñanza Superior: Nuevas aportaciones desde la investigación e innovación educativas (Pp. 308-321). Octaedro.Moll, T., Norte Fernánadex-Pacheco, N., & Beltran-Palanques, V. (2020) How do trained English-medium instruction (EMI) lecturers combine multimodal ensembles to engage their students? In R. Roig-VilaLa (Ed.), La docencia en la Enseñanza Superior: Nuevas aportaciones desde la investigación e innovación educativas (Pp. 308-321). Octaedro.). Whereas in Italy almost all EMI instructors are Italian, in Japanese higher education a mix of non-Japanese faculty and Japanese locals, usually with degrees from overseas institutions, teach EMI courses. A chronic shortage of EMI faculty in Japan was also noted as was a discrepancy between areas of expertise and language ability. That is, non-native English user faculty members often teach without qualifications to teach in English (Horie, 2018Horie, M. (2018) Faculty training for non-native speakers of English at Japanese universities: Effective English-medium teaching for a culturally diversified student population. In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp.207–224).: Multilingual Matters.Horie, M. (2018) Faculty training for non-native speakers of English at Japanese universities: Effective English-medium teaching for a culturally diversified student population. In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp.207–224).: Multilingual Matters.), while native-level English users are either faculty members who primarily teach language classes or international academics who are on short-term contracts or adjunct lecturers (Bradford & Brown, 2018b (2018b) Introduction: English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education, In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. xvii–xxiii). Multilingual Matters. (2018b) Introduction: English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education, In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. xvii–xxiii). Multilingual Matters.). English-speaking academics are often asked to teach content outside their own disciplines in order to further expand EMI in that context. Like Japan, EMI faculty in Sweden consists of Swedish teachers and teachers who are employed in Sweden but come from a range of international? contexts (e.g., Brazil, Turkey). There is little to no specific EMI support provided for teachers in Sweden, and the ability to teach content in English is generally assumed (Siegel, in preparationSiegel, J. in preparation). Instructors in a mature EMI setting: Swedish teachers and teachers in Sweden.Siegel, J. in preparation). Instructors in a mature EMI setting: Swedish teachers and teachers in Sweden.). Some teachers in which study? reported relying on their experience working as teaching assistants (TAs) during post-graduate work in English-speaking countries.
In terms of general student descriptions from the three contexts, classroom composition in Italy can vary significantly from course to course. Students are typically required to attest English competence in some way, but no systematic regulations for doing so exist. Students studying EMI in Italy often face somewhat more expensive tuition than those studying on L1 Italian degrees, which is relatively cheaper. In Japan, EMI courses are comprised of a mix of local Japanese students and international counterparts, the majority of which hail from other Asian countries. EMI allows international students without Japanese language skills to study in Japan (Bradford, 2023Bradford, A. (2023) EME in Japan: ROAD-MAPPING the promise made to students. In E. Dafouz & U. Smit (Eds.), Researching English-medium higher education: Diverse applications and critical evaluations of the ROAD-MAPPING framework (pp. 171–189). Routledge.Bradford, A. (2023) EME in Japan: ROAD-MAPPING the promise made to students. In E. Dafouz & U. Smit (Eds.), Researching English-medium higher education: Diverse applications and critical evaluations of the ROAD-MAPPING framework (pp. 171–189). Routledge.). Three types of “local” Japanese students who enroll in EMI are identified: a) those with study abroad experience, b) those who went to international schools prior to university, and c) those with domestic education only (Iino & Murata, 2016Iino, M. & Murata, K. (2016) Dynamics of EFL communication in an English-medium academic context in Japan. In K. Murata (Ed.), Exploring EFL in Japanese academic and business contexts: Conceptualization, research and pedagogic implications (pp. 111–130). Routledge.Iino, M. & Murata, K. (2016) Dynamics of EFL communication in an English-medium academic context in Japan. In K. Murata (Ed.), Exploring EFL in Japanese academic and business contexts: Conceptualization, research and pedagogic implications (pp. 111–130). Routledge.). For the majority of the domestic students, especially for those in group c), EMI serves dual purposes: to learn the content and to make linguistic gains (Bradford & Brown, 2018b (2018b) Introduction: English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education, In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. xvii–xxiii). Multilingual Matters. (2018b) Introduction: English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education, In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. xvii–xxiii). Multilingual Matters.; Galloway et al., 2017Galloway, N., Kriukow, J., & Numajiri, T. (2017) Internationalisation, higher education and the growing demand for English: An investigation into the English medium of instruction (EMI) movement in China and Japan. ELT Research Papers, 17, 1–44. h035_eltra_internationalisation_he_and_the_growing_demand_for_english_a4_final_webGalloway, N., Kriukow, J., & Numajiri, T. (2017) Internationalisation, higher education and the growing demand for English: An investigation into the English medium of instruction (EMI) movement in China and Japan. ELT Research Papers, 17, 1–44. h035_eltra_internationalisation_he_and_the_growing_demand_for_english_a4_final_web: Hashimoto, 2018Hashimoto, H. (2018) Government policy driving English-medium instruction at Japanese universities: Responding to a competitiveness crisis in a globalizing world. In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. 14–31). : Multilingual Matters.Hashimoto, H. (2018) Government policy driving English-medium instruction at Japanese universities: Responding to a competitiveness crisis in a globalizing world. In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. 14–31). : Multilingual Matters.). The latter aspect of EMI holds nonnegligible value to Japanese students for boosting career prospects (Kumazawa & Brewster, 2021Kumazawa, M. & Brewster, D. (2021) A study of student and teacher perspectives on perceived benefits of EMI: A preliminary analysis. JAAL in JACET Proceedings, 3, 30-37.Kumazawa, M. & Brewster, D. (2021) A study of student and teacher perspectives on perceived benefits of EMI: A preliminary analysis. JAAL in JACET Proceedings, 3, 30-37.; Bradford, 2023Bradford, A. (2023) EME in Japan: ROAD-MAPPING the promise made to students. In E. Dafouz & U. Smit (Eds.), Researching English-medium higher education: Diverse applications and critical evaluations of the ROAD-MAPPING framework (pp. 171–189). Routledge.Bradford, A. (2023) EME in Japan: ROAD-MAPPING the promise made to students. In E. Dafouz & U. Smit (Eds.), Researching English-medium higher education: Diverse applications and critical evaluations of the ROAD-MAPPING framework (pp. 171–189). Routledge.) although it remains implicit in the government’s content learning-oriented policies, leading to gaps between the macro-, and meso-level policies, and students’ expectations (Aizawa & McKinley, 2020Aizawa, I., & McKinley, J. (2020) EMI challenges in Japan’s internationalization of higher education. In H. Bowles & A. C. Murphy (Eds.), English-medium instruction and the internationalization of universities (pp. 27–48). Palgrave Macmillan. Aizawa, I., & McKinley, J. (2020) EMI challenges in Japan’s internationalization of higher education. In H. Bowles & A. C. Murphy (Eds.), English-medium instruction and the internationalization of universities (pp. 27–48). Palgrave Macmillan. ; Brown & Bradford, 2017Brown, H., & Bradford, A. (2017) EMI, CLIL, and CBI: Differing approaches and goals. In P. Clements, A. Krause, & H. Brown (Eds.). Transformation in language education (pp. 328–334). JALT.Brown, H., & Bradford, A. (2017) EMI, CLIL, and CBI: Differing approaches and goals. In P. Clements, A. Krause, & H. Brown (Eds.). Transformation in language education (pp. 328–334). JALT.). This stands in stark contrast to Sweden, where students are expected to be able to study content in English with no intended language development goals or objectives. However, the changing demographics in Sweden and challenges of newly arrived students with multicultural and multilingual backgrounds, has led to wider gaps in L2 English proficiency among the student populations at Swedish universities. While school curriculum steering documents state that students achieve a CEFR B2 level prior to entering university, that goal likely depends on consistent exposure to English and English lessons in schools and may not be realistic for students who enter the Swedish school system later in their education. When considering student proficiency, it is also important to note that while internationally recognized proficiency tests like IELTS may constitute general reference points, students vary greatly in their proficiency in the macro-skills, with perceived strong speaking and listening skills sometimes masking struggles with reading and composing academic texts (e.g., Dafouz et al., 2016Dafouz, E., Hüttner, J., & Smit, U. (2016) University teachers’ beliefs of language and content integration in English-medium education in multilingual university settings. Conceptualising integration in CLIL and multilingual education, 123–143. Dafouz, E., Hüttner, J., & Smit, U. (2016) University teachers’ beliefs of language and content integration in English-medium education in multilingual university settings. Conceptualising integration in CLIL and multilingual education, 123–143. ; Eriksson, 2023Eriksson, L. (2023) “Gruelling to read”: Swedish university students’ perceptions of and attitudes towards academic reading in English. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 64 , 101265. Eriksson, L. (2023) “Gruelling to read”: Swedish university students’ perceptions of and attitudes towards academic reading in English. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 64, 101265. ).
Practices and processes in EMI in the three contexts
The final category of the cross-contextual comparison of EMI in the workshop focused on practices and processes. According to Dafouz and Smit (2020) (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. , a social practice is a routinized behavior embedded in each cultural context, and social processes help us capture the longer-term changes which derive from the intrinsic fluctuation between the micro-, meso-, and macro-levels within social institutions. They claim that this process-oriented, rather than product-oriented, perspective affords an in-depth analysis of praxis and development. To strengthen inner coherence, in our workshop we focused on the same two groups of agents in the micro-level EMI context, i.e., teachers and students. While the people section focused on who these people are, the current section seeks more tangible examples of what they do in their local EMI context. In addition, practices and processes take place in local institutional and classroom settings, descriptions of which are very useful when interpreting research.
The comparison of the teacher practices in the three contexts clearly highlights the situated nature of EMI. Challenges that teachers that teachers face in these countries greatly diverged depending on various factors, many of which have already been mentioned above. In the Italian context, EMI lecturers’ practices are influenced by the broader local academic tradition more than their disciplinary culture (Zuaro 2022Zuaro, B. (2022) English-medium Instruction through the lens of discipline and culture: Lecturer's beliefs and reported practices. Apples - Journal of applied language studies, 16(1), 113–131.Zuaro, B. (2022) English-medium Instruction through the lens of discipline and culture: Lecturer's beliefs and reported practices. Apples - Journal of applied language studies, 16(1), 113–131.). Lecturing style, emphasis on sophisticated language, and assessment practices tend to share significant similarities across disciplinary domains in Italy; thus, when the switch to EMI challenges, for a number of reasons, these engrained practices and values, virtually all lecturers can be expected to be affected (Zuaro 2023 (2023) Content adaptations in English-medium Instruction: Comparing L1 and English-medium lectures. English for Specific Purposes, 70, 267–279. (2023) Content adaptations in English-medium Instruction: Comparing L1 and English-medium lectures. English for Specific Purposes, 70, 267–279. ). Conversely, the complete lack of structured cultural mediation in EMI can also impact international students, who may struggle to navigate the practices and expectations of local teachers, with impacts on their academic performance (Degano & Zuaro 2019Degano, C. & Zuaro, B. (2019) Oral examinations in EMI: A focus on pragmatic competence. Textus: English studies in Italy, 32 ( 1 ), 141–162.Degano, C. & Zuaro, B. (2019) Oral examinations in EMI: A focus on pragmatic competence. Textus: English studies in Italy, 32 (1), 141–162.).
In Japan, the linguistic as well as pedagogic challenges that locally hired teachers face are salient themes in teacher practices. According to Horie (2018)Horie, M. (2018) Faculty training for non-native speakers of English at Japanese universities: Effective English-medium teaching for a culturally diversified student population. In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp.207–224).: Multilingual Matters.Horie, M. (2018) Faculty training for non-native speakers of English at Japanese universities: Effective English-medium teaching for a culturally diversified student population. In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp.207–224).: Multilingual Matters., the top-down change in the teaching practice toward EMI has given traditional professors multiple challenges including insufficient linguistic abilities to comfortably deliver their academic content in English (Aizawa & Rose, 2019Aizawa, I., & Rose, H. (2019) An analysis of Japan’s English as medium of instruction initiatives within higher education: The gap between meso-level policy and micro-level practice. Higher Education. Aizawa, I., & Rose, H. (2019) An analysis of Japan’s English as medium of instruction initiatives within higher education: The gap between meso-level policy and micro-level practice. Higher Education. ; Galloway et al., 2017Galloway, N., Kriukow, J., & Numajiri, T. (2017) Internationalisation, higher education and the growing demand for English: An investigation into the English medium of instruction (EMI) movement in China and Japan. ELT Research Papers, 17, 1–44. h035_eltra_internationalisation_he_and_the_growing_demand_for_english_a4_final_webGalloway, N., Kriukow, J., & Numajiri, T. (2017) Internationalisation, higher education and the growing demand for English: An investigation into the English medium of instruction (EMI) movement in China and Japan. ELT Research Papers, 17, 1–44. h035_eltra_internationalisation_he_and_the_growing_demand_for_english_a4_final_web) and lack of experience in managing a culturally and linguistically diverse study population (Horie, 2018Horie, M. (2018) Faculty training for non-native speakers of English at Japanese universities: Effective English-medium teaching for a culturally diversified student population. In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp.207–224).: Multilingual Matters.Horie, M. (2018) Faculty training for non-native speakers of English at Japanese universities: Effective English-medium teaching for a culturally diversified student population. In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp.207–224).: Multilingual Matters.). Stemming from these and other challenges, teaching EMI is a sink-or-swim situation for teachers in Japan, and very little support is provided at either the governmental or the institutional level, leading to the risk of deteriorated levels of content learning delivery (Kumazawa & Brewster, 2021Kumazawa, M. & Brewster, D. (2021) A study of student and teacher perspectives on perceived benefits of EMI: A preliminary analysis. JAAL in JACET Proceedings, 3, 30-37.Kumazawa, M. & Brewster, D. (2021) A study of student and teacher perspectives on perceived benefits of EMI: A preliminary analysis. JAAL in JACET Proceedings, 3, 30-37.). This observation is particularly interesting, given that it was governmental initiatives that began the EMI ball rolling, and yet, sustained linguistic and pedagogic support for it remain wanting.
Contrary to Japan, a report on teacher practices in Sweden (Siegel et al., 2024Siegel, J., Kumazawa, M., Brewster, D., & Björkman Nylén, B. (2024) Similarities and differences between EMI students’ experiences in Japan and Sweden. The Language Teacher, 48(4), 3-12.Siegel, J., Kumazawa, M., Brewster, D., & Björkman Nylén, B. (2024) Similarities and differences between EMI students’ experiences in Japan and Sweden. The Language Teacher, 48(4), 3-12.) manifested the maturity of EMI in the country’s educational system. Many EMI instructors seem to have made adequate adjustments to the course content and materials over the years. The teachers have used different techniques to cater to culturally and linguistically diverse student groups; to address different L2 English abilities among students, for example, EMI instructors speak slower and/or provide review activities. In other words, EMI teachers in Sweden seem to be aware of and capable of making necessary adjustments, given some experience. That seems true in the case of spoken English use in class; however, reading and writing of academic texts have been identified as weaknesses of EMI students in Sweden (Siegel, in preparationSiegel, J. in preparation). Instructors in a mature EMI setting: Swedish teachers and teachers in Sweden.Siegel, J. in preparation). Instructors in a mature EMI setting: Swedish teachers and teachers in Sweden.; Eriksson, 2023), research that reinforces the tensions and criticism, especially at EMI implemented at the undergraduate level.
Regarding student practices, a comparison among the three contexts displayed a wide spectrum of realities relating to EMI implementation. In Italy, students tend to believe their EMI content learning is similar to their L1-medium peers despite reported challenges, while research suggests that EMI students may not perform as well as their L1-medium peers in some subjects (Costa & Mariotti, 2017Costa, F., & Mariotti, C. (2017) Students’ outcomes in English-medium instruction: Is there any difference related to discipline?. L’Analisi Linguistica e Letteraria, 25 (2 Supplement).Costa, F., & Mariotti, C. (2017) Students’ outcomes in English-medium instruction: Is there any difference related to discipline?. L’Analisi Linguistica e Letteraria, 25(2 Supplement).; Guarda, 2018Guarda, M. (2018) I just sometimes forget that I’m actually studying in English”: Exploring student perceptions on English-medium instruction at an Italian university. Rassegna Italiana Di Linguistica Applicata, 2 , 129–144.Guarda, M. (2018) I just sometimes forget that I’m actually studying in English”: Exploring student perceptions on English-medium instruction at an Italian university. Rassegna Italiana Di Linguistica Applicata, 2, 129–144.; Guarda, 2021 (2021) Student perspectives on English-medium instruction: Insights from an Italian university. Routledge. (2021) Student perspectives on English-medium instruction: Insights from an Italian university. Routledge. ) Additionally, as mentioned, for international students, next to content and language abilities, students’ performance may be affected by their ability to navigate local assessment practices, which can be strictly codified according to the local academic traditions. Oral examinations, for example, continue to be one of the most common means of assessment across disciplines in Italian higher education, requiring students to not only possess content knowledge, but to be able to express it in particular ways and at particular moments of the exam, background knowledge that international students can hardly be privy to without additional support (Degano & Zuaro 2019Degano, C. & Zuaro, B. (2019) Oral examinations in EMI: A focus on pragmatic competence. Textus: English studies in Italy, 32 ( 1 ), 141–162.Degano, C. & Zuaro, B. (2019) Oral examinations in EMI: A focus on pragmatic competence. Textus: English studies in Italy, 32 (1), 141–162.). One issue reported from Japan was the ontological paradox of EMI, which refers to the ironic reality where regular domestic students without enough language skills are often marginalized as linguistic minority in “real” EMI contexts, whereas in “pseudo” EMI contexts where these local students are the majority, goals of EMI are not fully achieved. This observation calls to mind the distinction between English as a target and/or a tool (Baker & Hüttner, 2017) as well as challenges related to articulating a satisfactory definition of EMI (e.g., Rose et al., 2023Rose, H., Macaro, E., Sahan, K., Aizawa, I., Zhou, S., & Wei, M. (2023) Defining English medium instruction: Striving for comparative equivalence. Language Teaching, 56 (4), 539–550. Rose, H., Macaro, E., Sahan, K., Aizawa, I., Zhou, S., & Wei, M. (2023) Defining English medium instruction: Striving for comparative equivalence. Language Teaching, 56(4), 539–550. ). This micro-level paradoxical situation apparently reflects the broader, systemic lack of preparedness for EMI (Aizawa & McKinley, 2020Aizawa, I., & McKinley, J. (2020) EMI challenges in Japan’s internationalization of higher education. In H. Bowles & A. C. Murphy (Eds.), English-medium instruction and the internationalization of universities (pp. 27–48). Palgrave Macmillan. Aizawa, I., & McKinley, J. (2020) EMI challenges in Japan’s internationalization of higher education. In H. Bowles & A. C. Murphy (Eds.), English-medium instruction and the internationalization of universities (pp. 27–48). Palgrave Macmillan. ; Aizawa & Rose, 2019Aizawa, I., & Rose, H. (2019) An analysis of Japan’s English as medium of instruction initiatives within higher education: The gap between meso-level policy and micro-level practice. Higher Education. Aizawa, I., & Rose, H. (2019) An analysis of Japan’s English as medium of instruction initiatives within higher education: The gap between meso-level policy and micro-level practice. Higher Education. ; Bradford & Brown, 2018b (2018b) Introduction: English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education, In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. xvii–xxiii). Multilingual Matters. (2018b) Introduction: English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education, In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. xvii–xxiii). Multilingual Matters.).
If students are comfortable using English, then readiness is not even an issue. I would delete ‘major’ and ‘however’. That said, some minor glitches were observed including their lack of confidence in productive English skills and difficulty in adjusting to accents (Siegel, 2023 (2023) Student learning online in a second language: Accounting for student voices. Reports on Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 2. Centre for the Advancement of University Teaching: Stockholm University. ISSN: 2003-1688. Available at: https://su.figshare.com/projects/TLHE_reports/30437 (2023) Student learning online in a second language: Accounting for student voices. Reports on Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 2. Centre for the Advancement of University Teaching: Stockholm University. ISSN: 2003-1688. Available at: https://su.figshare.com/projects/TLHE_reports/30437). These perceived challenges have led to students’ perceptions of unfair advantages for L1 English users and their stronger identification with L2 English user teachers. As noted in previous studies (Kilickaya, 2006Kilickaya, F. (2006) Instructors’ attitudes towards English-medium instruction in Turkey. Humanizing Language Teaching, 8 (6), 1–16.Kilickaya, F. (2006) Instructors’ attitudes towards English-medium instruction in Turkey. Humanizing Language Teaching, 8(6), 1–16.; Yuan et al., 2022Yuan, R., Chen, Y., & Peng, J. (2022) Understanding university teachers’ beliefs and practice in using English as a medium of instruction. Teaching in Higher Education, 27 (2), 233–248. Yuan, R., Chen, Y., & Peng, J. (2022) Understanding university teachers’ beliefs and practice in using English as a medium of instruction. Teaching in Higher Education, 27(2), 233–248. ), teachers required to teach EMI courses may resist the task due to the colonial history linked to English. At the same time, teachers have also expressed favorable views towards EMI, citing such as? for students within individual disciplines, increasing global interconnectedness, and helping them advance knowledge in their fields (Yuan et al., 2022Yuan, R., Chen, Y., & Peng, J. (2022) Understanding university teachers’ beliefs and practice in using English as a medium of instruction. Teaching in Higher Education, 27 (2), 233–248. Yuan, R., Chen, Y., & Peng, J. (2022) Understanding university teachers’ beliefs and practice in using English as a medium of instruction. Teaching in Higher Education, 27(2), 233–248. ).
Five emerging issues
After providing the contextual descriptions of the three different contexts drawing upon the ROAD-MAPPING framework, we concluded the workshop by calling attention to five issues related to EMI that appeared relevant regardless of our contexts’ differences. Their complexity made it impossible to find satisfactory solutions for the five issues in the context of the workshop. Nonetheless, these issues were presented as a continuing “challenge” to everyone involved in EMI. These points resonate well not only with the workshop’s discussion, but also with the themes exhibited in presentations and talks on EMI and related topics at the AILA 2024 World Congress, which we summarized earlier in this paper. Below we introduce the five issues with one question for each to help drive thinking around EMI moving forward from the conference.
The first of the five issues raises concerns about the contribution of EMI towards internationality. While EMI’s contribution to the internationalization of the local society and its citizens is generally assumed, the real implications of this pedagogical approach are less clear and less investigated. As noted by Aizawa and Rose (2019)Aizawa, I., & Rose, H. (2019) An analysis of Japan’s English as medium of instruction initiatives within higher education: The gap between meso-level policy and micro-level practice. Higher Education. Aizawa, I., & Rose, H. (2019) An analysis of Japan’s English as medium of instruction initiatives within higher education: The gap between meso-level policy and micro-level practice. Higher Education. , the financial benefits of EMI and the perceived internationalization it can bring are often strong motivations for its implementation. Further, EMI can contribute positively to universities’ reputations and global rankings (Hazelkorn, 2012Hazelkorn, E. (2012) European “transparency instruments”: Driving the modernisation of European higher education. In A. Curaj, P. Scott, L. Vlăsceanu, & L. Wilson (Eds.), European higher education at the crossroads: Between the Bologna Process and national reforms. (pp. 339–360). Springer Hazelkorn, E. (2012) European “transparency instruments”: Driving the modernisation of European higher education. In A. Curaj, P. Scott, L. Vlăsceanu, & L. Wilson (Eds.), European higher education at the crossroads: Between the Bologna Process and national reforms. (pp. 339–360). Springer ). With these different levels of interests at play, there are cases where gaps between polices and realities (Aizawa & McKinley, 2020Aizawa, I., & McKinley, J. (2020) EMI challenges in Japan’s internationalization of higher education. In H. Bowles & A. C. Murphy (Eds.), English-medium instruction and the internationalization of universities (pp. 27–48). Palgrave Macmillan. Aizawa, I., & McKinley, J. (2020) EMI challenges in Japan’s internationalization of higher education. In H. Bowles & A. C. Murphy (Eds.), English-medium instruction and the internationalization of universities (pp. 27–48). Palgrave Macmillan. ) prevent EMI from moving toward international education as, for example, shown in the case of the ontological paradox in EMI courses in Japan. Against which criteria can the benefic connection between internationality and EMI be objectively verified is a question which needs further attention.
Secondly, as displayed in the contextual backgrounds of the three countries and where else? (e.g., Aizawa & Rose, 2019Aizawa, I., & Rose, H. (2019) An analysis of Japan’s English as medium of instruction initiatives within higher education: The gap between meso-level policy and micro-level practice. Higher Education. Aizawa, I., & Rose, H. (2019) An analysis of Japan’s English as medium of instruction initiatives within higher education: The gap between meso-level policy and micro-level practice. Higher Education. ), EMI can be a national and/or institutional strategy to address non-pedagogical concerns such as budget issues, student population control, and national development. This structural background has so far led to a lack of meaningful assessment of linguistic and pedagogical implications of EMI, and various issues have been reported from micro-level practices in the EMI literature (Lasagabaster & Doiz, 2021Lasagabaster, D., & Doiz, A. (Eds.) (2021) Language use in English-medium instruction at university. Routledge. Lasagabaster, D., & Doiz, A. (Eds.) (2021) Language use in English-medium instruction at university. Routledge. ; O’Dowd, 2018O’Dowd, R. (2018) The training and accreditation of teachers for English medium instruction: An overview of practice in European universities. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 21 (5), 553–563. O’Dowd, R. (2018) The training and accreditation of teachers for English medium instruction: An overview of practice in European universities. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 21(5), 553–563. ) as well as in the AILA 2024 conference. How can we ensure that quality and ethical education is foregrounded as the key criterion in university language policy decisions? Furthermore, how can the communication between the policy makers and the end users of EMI be encouraged to enhance the quality of EMI provision?
The third issue foregrounds the question of (in)justice in relation to the spread of EMI (Van Parijs, 2011Van Parijs, P. (2011) Linguistic justice for Europe and for the world. Oxford University Press. Van Parijs, P. (2011) Linguistic justice for Europe and for the world. Oxford University Press. ), one of the themes raised in the AILA 2024 World Congress. With the use of the dominant lingua franca, English, EMI has been described as opening up education. This reality was endorsed by the commentaries in this workshop (e.g., Japan promotes EMI to allow students without sufficient Japanese language skills to study in Japan). However, EMI can also be seen as accelerating the English-divide making education more elitist. Which provisions would increase the chances for the first, rather than the second, outcome?
In a similar vein to the third, the fourth question concerns the criteria against which “successful” EMI is measured in the light of epistemological and ethical influences that EMI brings about. While EMI is shaped in some part by the educational and academic landscape of the country where it is implemented, it can also be forced into a comparison with education in Anglophone countries. When this happens, threats of linguistic injustice, epistemicide and cultural hegemony are reinforced (e.g., Galloway et al., 2017Galloway, N., Kriukow, J., & Numajiri, T. (2017) Internationalisation, higher education and the growing demand for English: An investigation into the English medium of instruction (EMI) movement in China and Japan. ELT Research Papers, 17, 1–44. h035_eltra_internationalisation_he_and_the_growing_demand_for_english_a4_final_webGalloway, N., Kriukow, J., & Numajiri, T. (2017) Internationalisation, higher education and the growing demand for English: An investigation into the English medium of instruction (EMI) movement in China and Japan. ELT Research Papers, 17, 1–44. h035_eltra_internationalisation_he_and_the_growing_demand_for_english_a4_final_web; Lanvers & Hultgren, 2018Lanvers, U., & Hultgren, A. K. (2018) The Englishization of European education: Foreword. European Journal of Language Policy, 10 (1), 1–11. Lanvers, U., & Hultgren, A. K. (2018) The Englishization of European education: Foreword. European Journal of Language Policy, 10(1), 1–11. ). Given EMI is not meant to be Anglo-American education, but international education, its specific objectives should be established in a reflective and participatory fashion. How can we make it happen?
Finally, when EMI is framed in the current educational landscape under the influences of the economic neoliberal turn (e.g., Ou et al., 2022Ou, A. W., Hult, F. M., & Gu, M. M. (2022) Language policy and planning for English-medium instruction in higher education. Journal of English-Medium Instruction, 1 (1), 7–28. Ou, A. W., Hult, F. M., & Gu, M. M. (2022) Language policy and planning for English-medium instruction in higher education. Journal of English-Medium Instruction, 1(1), 7–28. ), it can be seen as a driving force behind the accelerating commodification of higher education institutions. As mentioned in the third issue above, EMI is intended to open up the global market of prospective students to universities worldwide despite their linguistic situations. When EMI is used as a marketing strategy to address financial concerns, and EMI courses are “sold” to students as an educational commodity (Birchley, 2018Birchley, S. L. (2018) A marketing perspective on English-medium instruction at universities in Japan. In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. 130–146). Multilingual Matters.Birchley, S. L. (2018) A marketing perspective on English-medium instruction at universities in Japan. In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges, and outcomes (pp. 130–146). Multilingual Matters.), non-pedagogical issues can affect pedagogical ones (e.g., Aizawa & Rose, 2019Aizawa, I., & Rose, H. (2019) An analysis of Japan’s English as medium of instruction initiatives within higher education: The gap between meso-level policy and micro-level practice. Higher Education. Aizawa, I., & Rose, H. (2019) An analysis of Japan’s English as medium of instruction initiatives within higher education: The gap between meso-level policy and micro-level practice. Higher Education. ), possibly leading to deteriorated quality of learning outcomes. To what degree can we justify this trend, and how can we negotiate the quality of education against the market needs for education?
These fundamental questions go beyond the features and needs of one particular context and force us to rethink our collective views on the purposes of higher education in general. As such, identifying solutions to these issues cannot happen in isolation, but rather requires dialogue across contexts and actors. At the same time, the local specificities must also not be disregarded if functional interventions are to be developed. The way forward in this difficult balancing act requires, in our view, the deployment of tools that facilitate the identification and discussion of similarities and differences. The ROAD-MAPPING framework served us well in our three-country comparison, by providing us with common entry points into the heterogeneity of our contexts of study.
Closing thoughts
The present paper set out to review EMI related topics present at the AILA 2024 World Congress and to provide a detailed summary of the workshop titled “Comparative guidelines for cross-contextual EMI research: Policies, people and practices” (Siegel et al., 2024Siegel, J., Kumazawa, M., Brewster, D., & Björkman Nylén, B. (2024) Similarities and differences between EMI students’ experiences in Japan and Sweden. The Language Teacher, 48(4), 3-12.Siegel, J., Kumazawa, M., Brewster, D., & Björkman Nylén, B. (2024) Similarities and differences between EMI students’ experiences in Japan and Sweden. The Language Teacher, 48(4), 3-12.), emphasizing, accentuating the calls for more cross-contextual research in the field of EMI. As the growth of EMI in different educational contexts around the globe continues, the need for common yardsticks to read and evaluate the increasing body of EMI research is unquestionable. In our workshop, we attempted to address this eminent need by providing descriptions of the three distinctive EMI contexts in three categories, policy, people, and practices and processes inspired by the ROAD-MAPPING framework (Dafouz & Smit, 2016Dafouz, E., & Smit, U. (2016) Towards a dynamic conceptual framework for English-medium education in multilingual university settings. Applied linguistics, 37 (3), 397–415. Dafouz, E., & Smit, U. (2016) Towards a dynamic conceptual framework for English-medium education in multilingual university settings. Applied linguistics, 37(3), 397–415. , 2020 (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. (2020) ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the internationalised university. Palgrave. ). We believe that this it has six interconnected dimensions allowed us to showcase one concrete way for providing comparable background information, helping us to enhance transparency and transferability in EMI-related research. It is hoped that this attempt, along with the five issues concerning the current practices and the socio-educational climates surrounding EMI, will invite further discussions as to how to push the EMI research from here and beyond.
Funding
Open Access publication of this article was funded through a Transformative Agreement with Stockholm University.