Introduction

In recent years, Open Educational Resources (OERs) have gained increasing global attention as a means of improving access to education, supporting pedagogical innovation, and contributing to broader societal goals, including those articulated in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Ossiannilsson, 2023Ossiannilsson, E. (2023) Open educational resources (OER) and some of the United Nations sustainable development goals. The International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 40 (5), 548–561. Ossiannilsson, E. (2023) Open educational resources (OER) and some of the United Nations sustainable development goals. The International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 40(5), 548–561. ).

OERs are learning, teaching and research materials in any format and medium that reside in the public domain or are under copyright that have been released under an open license, that permit no-cost access, re-use, re-purpose, adaptation and redistribution by others.

This definition, ratified in the 2019 UNESCO Recommendation on Open Educational Resources (UNESCO, 2019UNESCO (2019) Recommendation on open educational resources (OER). https://​unesdoc​.unesco​.org​/ark:​/48223​/pf0000383205UNESCO (2019) Recommendation on open educational resources (OER). https://​unesdoc​.unesco​.org​/ark:​/48223​/pf0000383205), serves as the foundation for the first international normative instrument dedicated to openly licensed educational materials and technologies in education. This landmark document provides a global framework grounded in the transformative potential of OERs to support inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all — core aims articulated in SDG 4. More broadly, OERs are positioned as contributing to a range of SDGs, including those focused on reducing inequalities (SDG 10), fostering gender equality (SDG 5), and contributing to climate action (SDG 13) through critical, sustainability-focused education. The aspirational impact of OERs, therefore, lies not only in their capacity to democratise access to knowledge, but also in their potential to decentre its production — inviting diverse epistemologies and locally rooted knowledges into the educational sphere. This is especially relevant in the field of languages education, where commercially produced textbooks have traditionally overlooked principles embedded in the SDGs — failing to address inequalities, gendered and racialised language ideologies, or ecological concerns — and instead reproducing and perpetuating Eurocentric, neoliberal, monoglossic, and anthropocentric ideologies (Bori, 2022Bori, P. (2022) Representation in coursebooks. In J. Norton & H. Buchanan (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Materials Development for Language Teaching (pp. 123–135). Routledge. Bori, P. (2022) Representation in coursebooks. In J. Norton & H. Buchanan (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Materials Development for Language Teaching (pp. 123–135). Routledge. , Bori & Canale, 2022Bori, P., & Canale, G. (2022) Neoliberal foreign language education: The search for alternatives. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 19 (4), 307–316. Bori, P., & Canale, G. (2022) Neoliberal foreign language education: The search for alternatives. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 19(4), 307–316. , Shah, et al., 2025Shah, W. A., Jatoi, Q. & Shah, U. R. (2025) De-centering the anthropocentric worldview in language textbooks: A posthumanist call for discursive reparations for sustainable ELT. Linguistics and Education, 86 , 101397. Shah, W. A., Jatoi, Q. & Shah, U. R. (2025) De-centering the anthropocentric worldview in language textbooks: A posthumanist call for discursive reparations for sustainable ELT. Linguistics and Education, 86, 101397. ). In contrast, critically designed language OERs offer a powerful opportunity to reimagine language education as a site for advancing inclusive, equitable, and sustainable futures.

This paper offers an exploration of how OERs can be reimagined to advance diversity, equity, inclusion, and sustainability (DEIS) in language education. Focusing on university-level Spanish teaching in Australia, it draws on two purposefully designed OERs: JUNTXS and +JUNTXS, for which I served as lead author, as illustrative examples of justice-oriented, critically grounded open pedagogy (cf. Bali et al., 2020Bali, M., Cronin, C., Czerniewicz, L., DeRosa, R., & Jhangiani, R. (2020) Open at the margins: Critical perspectives on open education. Rebus Community.Bali, M., Cronin, C., Czerniewicz, L., DeRosa, R., & Jhangiani, R. (2020) Open at the margins: Critical perspectives on open education. Rebus Community.). These resources are analysed as pedagogical enactments of intersectional, decolonial, and feminist commitments that engage the SDGs in transformative rather than technocratic ways, foregrounding the political, ecological, and epistemic dimensions of language learning.

The paper unfolds in four parts. It first situates OERs and the SDGs within a critical DEIS framework. Next, it reviews literature on justice-oriented language education in Australian higher education and critiques prevailing OER practices. It then introduces JUNTXS and +JUNTXS as situated, illustrative examples that translate theory into practice, not with the aim of offering a universalisable model, but to explore the possibilities, frictions, and limitations of embedding DEIS principles in language learning OERs. Rather than generalising across the diverse field of Spanish language education, this focus foregrounds how, in a specific Australian university context, language materials can be intentionally designed to embody and test the tensions of DEIS commitments while also engaging with the broader goals articulated in the SDGs. The paper concludes by reflecting on the broader implications of this work for reimagining language education as a site of social and ecological transformation.

Diversity, equity, inclusion, and sustainability (DEIS) and the promise of OERs

OERs aim to enable the development of open and inclusive knowledge societies while directly advancing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (UN, 2015UN (2015) Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. https://​sdgs​.un​.org​/2030agendaUN (2015) Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. https://​sdgs​.un​.org​/2030agenda). Indeed, by fostering equitable access to high-quality and ‘glocally’ relevant learning materials, OERs stand to contribute to the realisation of several interconnected SDGs. Out of the 17 SDGs, all aimed to tackle the ‘wicked problems’ facing our world, from eradicating poverty and hunger to protecting the environment (Kerekes, 2023Kerekes, S. (2023) Chasing the impossible. Sustainable development is a wicked problem, but It can be and should be tamed! World Futures, 79 (3), 394–405. Kerekes, S. (2023) Chasing the impossible. Sustainable development is a wicked problem, but It can be and should be tamed! World Futures, 79(3), 394–405. ), OERs specifically address and directly respond to the following six SDGs (see, Ossiannilsson, 2023Ossiannilsson, E. (2023) Open educational resources (OER) and some of the United Nations sustainable development goals. The International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 40 (5), 548–561. Ossiannilsson, E. (2023) Open educational resources (OER) and some of the United Nations sustainable development goals. The International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 40(5), 548–561. , for an in-depth analysis).

Arguably, the most pertinent is SDG 4 (Quality Education), which seeks to ensure inclusive and equitable access to quality education while fostering lifelong learning opportunities for individuals across a wide range of intersectional identities (impacted, for instance, by gender, ethnicity, (dis)ability, linguistic background, socioeconomic status, and geographic location). In addition to democratising access to high-quality educational materials and supporting diverse and inclusive learning experiences, OERs foster self-directed, autonomous engagement with their content and support the development of lifelong learning skills. Against this backdrop, OERs act as both catalysts and drivers of access to high-quality education for all.

OERs also hold significant potential to advance SDG 5 (Gender Equality). Beyond enhancing accessibility, OERs can be designed or adapted to reflect diverse gender identities and lived experiences, challenging stereotypes and promoting positive role models for women and girls and gender non-confirming individuals. As such, these resources can address gender-based disparities in education, creating pathways for marginalised groups, and amplifying underrepresented voices. Furthermore, through their inherent emphasis on digital innovation, OERs also advance SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure), as they promote sustainable technologies and open knowledge systems. Arguably, innovation is one of the foundational pillars of OERs, as they promote new ways of producing and sharing research and educational content and encourage their co-design and co-creation through collaboration across sectors, communities and industries. OERs can thus help us reconceptualise how knowledge is generated, accessed, and utilised, driving transformative change in education and beyond.

Importantly, by removing barriers to access and prioritising adaptability, OER contributes to SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities). Indeed, OERs can help eliminate the financial barriers associated with purchasing traditional textbooks and subscription-based resources. Most OERs are freely available and openly-licensed under Creative Commons Copyright licenses, and therefore, most follow the 5 Rs[5]: they can be reused, retained, redistributed, revised, and remixed (Sanabria-Z et al., 2024Sanabria-Z, J., Alfaro-Ponce, B., Gonzalez-Perez, L. I., & Ramirez-Montoya, M. S. (2024) Reusable educational resources for developing complex thinking on open platforms. Education and Information Technologies, 29 (1), 1173–1199. Sanabria-Z, J., Alfaro-Ponce, B., Gonzalez-Perez, L. I., & Ramirez-Montoya, M. S. (2024) Reusable educational resources for developing complex thinking on open platforms. Education and Information Technologies, 29(1), 1173–1199. ). This empowers stakeholders (educators and learners alike) to exercise their own agency in adapting content to their contexts and ensuring that learning materials authentically reflect local realities. Moreover, OERs hold significant potential to meet the diverse needs of learners. They can seamlessly integrate with assistive technologies, such as screen readers, voice-to-text software, and eye-tracking systems, and be optimised for compatibility with these tools at no additional cost to learners.

OERs can also contribute meaningfully to SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions) by promoting inclusivity, transparency, and equitable access to knowledge as well as by building accountable institutions. OERs also address SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals) by encouraging global collaboration and multi-stakeholder alliances to co-create, co-design, share, and sustain resources for education and beyond. Finally, OERs also promote environmental sustainability by reducing dependence on printed materials, thus minimising paper use, and other environmental impacts associated with traditional publishing. By embracing digital and openly licensed formats, OER help can help reduce the carbon footprint of educational systems, reinforcing their alignment with broader sustainability goals. This environmental dimension complements its educational and social impacts, positioning OERs as a critical tool for fostering inclusive, equitable, and sustainable development worldwide.

While OER are widely positioned as supporting the SDGs, such claims warrant critical scrutiny. Global discourse on OER often remains shaped by technocratic and instrumental logics that prioritise access, efficiency, and cost reduction, while overlooking the epistemological and political complexities of transformative education (Adam & Sarwar, 2022Adam, T.; Sarwar, M. B. (2022) Decolonising Open Educational Resources (OER): Why the Focus on ‘Open’ and ‘Access’ Is Not Enough. EdTech Revolution. https://​opendeved​.net​/2022​/04​/08Adam, T.; Sarwar, M. B. (2022) Decolonising Open Educational Resources (OER): Why the Focus on ‘Open’ and ‘Access’ Is Not Enough. EdTech Revolution. https://​opendeved​.net​/2022​/04​/08). The SDGs themselves have been criticised for advancing a universalist development agenda that can obscure local struggles, particularly in postcolonial and settler colonial contexts (Arora-Jonsson, 2023Arora-Jonsson, S. (2023) The sustainable development goals: A universalist promise for the future. Futures, 146 , 103087. Arora-Jonsson, S. (2023) The sustainable development goals: A universalist promise for the future. Futures, 146, 103087. ). Without careful attention to context, OER may reproduce the inequities they seek to address, privileging dominant languages, marginalising Indigenous and local knowledges, and leaving structural inequalities intact. The following sections explore these tensions in (Australian) higher education, particularly in relation to language learning.

Access to OERs in the higher education context

OERs’ alignment with the SDGs is grounded in their commitment to advancing equity and social justice, particularly in ensuring access to knowledge. This commitment is especially relevant in the higher education context, where the escalating costs of traditional textbooks and associated learning materials highlight deep-seated systemic inequities (Clinton-Lisell et al., 2021Clinton-Lisell, V., Legerski, E. M., Rhodes, B., & Gilpin, S. (2021) Open educational resources as tools to foster equity. In C. C. Ozaki & L. Parson (Eds.), Teaching and learning for social justice and equity in higher education: Content areas (pp. 317–337). Springer International Publishing. Clinton-Lisell, V., Legerski, E. M., Rhodes, B., & Gilpin, S. (2021) Open educational resources as tools to foster equity. In C. C. Ozaki & L. Parson (Eds.), Teaching and learning for social justice and equity in higher education: Content areas (pp. 317–337). Springer International Publishing. ). Indeed, the affordability and accessibility of textbooks have long been recognised as significant equity issues. According to Ponte et al. (2021Ponte, F., Lennox, A., & Hurley, J. (2021) The evolution of the open textbook initiative. Journal of the Australian Library and Information Association, 70 (2), 194–212. Ponte, F., Lennox, A., & Hurley, J. (2021) The evolution of the open textbook initiative. Journal of the Australian Library and Information Association, 70(2), 194–212. , p. 195), “textbooks and study supplies affordability” disproportionately impact (first-generation) undergraduate students from Indigenous, regional, and low socio-economic backgrounds (see also, Jenkins et al., 2020Jenkins, J. J., Sánchez, L. A., Schraedley, M. A., Hannans, J., Navick, N., & Young, J. (2020) Textbook broke: Textbook affordability as a social justice issue. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 1 (3), 1–13. Jenkins, J. J., Sánchez, L. A., Schraedley, M. A., Hannans, J., Navick, N., & Young, J. (2020) Textbook broke: Textbook affordability as a social justice issue. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 1(3), 1–13. ). Critical digital pedagogy scholar Jesse Stommel aptly captures this intersectional issue, asserting that “textbooks are a social justice issue” (Stommel, 2018Stommel, J. (2018) Textbooks, OER, and the need for open pedagogy. In S. M. Morris & J. Stommel (Eds.), An urgency of teachers. Pressbooks. https://​criticaldigitalpedagogy​.press​books​.com​/chapter​/textbooks​​-oer​​-and​​-the​​-need​​-for​​-open​​-pedagogy/Stommel, J. (2018) Textbooks, OER, and the need for open pedagogy. In S. M. Morris & J. Stommel (Eds.), An urgency of teachers. Pressbooks. https://​criticaldigitalpedagogy​.press​books​.com​/chapter​/textbooks​​-oer​​-and​​-the​​-need​​-for​​-open​​-pedagogy/).

Accessing textbooks, whether in print or digital formats, is increasingly difficult for many students, especially when supplementary revision materials are locked behind paywalls. In the US, these issues are closely scrutinised by the Student Public Interest Research Groups (Student PIRGs). Their latest report (Xie, 2024Xie, D. (2024) Automatic textbook billing: Limited choice, uncertain savings. https://​student​pirgs​.org​/2024​/06​/13​/automatic​​-textbook​​-billing​​-2/Xie, D. (2024) Automatic textbook billing: Limited choice, uncertain savings. https://​student​pirgs​.org​/2024​/06​/13​/automatic​​-textbook​​-billing​​-2/) reveals that in a bid to remain competitive — even before the transition to emergency online learning triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic — major publishers have been moving to digital e-book formats. This move has effectively allowed them to “largely eliminate the used-book market and shrink students’ options for affordable textbooks” (p. 9). Moreover, major publishers are increasingly bundling digital textbook products with single user ‘access codes’ that grant temporary access to online learning platforms. These platforms typically include the digital version of the textbook alongside additional features like homework, quizzes, and study aids. However, these access codes are inherently exclusionary — non-transferable and typically expiring after a pre-determined period — preventing students from retaining access or sharing their learning materials. When combined with a physical textbook, the expiration of the access code further erodes the value of the hard copy, reinforcing a cycle of commodification that prioritises profit over equitable access to knowledge. According to the Student PIRGs report, this strategy is further entrenched through automatic textbook billing agreements with institutions, which solidify publishers’ roles as gatekeepers of educational materials. These agreements create a system in which publishers can guarantee the sale of a new book to every student in a class, regardless of the financial burden it places on learners or the systemic inequities it exacerbates. Therefore, this financial burden not only limits students’ academic opportunities but also raises questions about the value placed on certain types of knowledge and who can afford to access it.

These inequities have a compounding effect on vulnerable student populations. In a study examining the impact of high textbook costs in a first-year Introductory Psychology college course (Nusbaum et al., 2020Nusbaum, A. T., Cuttler, C., & Swindell, S. (2020) Open educational resources as a tool for educational equity: Evidence from an introductory psychology class. Frontiers in Education, 4 , Article 152. Nusbaum, A. T., Cuttler, C., & Swindell, S. (2020) Open educational resources as a tool for educational equity: Evidence from an introductory psychology class. Frontiers in Education, 4, Article 152. ), researchers identified four significant impacts of high textbook costs on first-generation and ethnic minority college students: (1) many enrol in fewer courses to reduce expenses associated with textbooks and materials; (2) some avoid enrolling in specific classes that require costly materials; (3) others drop classes they initially enrolled in due to the prohibitive cost of required learning resources; and (4) for many, the inability to afford textbooks often results in lower grades or even course failure.

Furthermore, the issue extends beyond individual students to institutional resources, as university libraries also struggle to provide sufficient access to (e-)textbooks. Notably, as explained by Chad (2018Chad, K. (2018) The student consumer and the rise of e-textbook platforms. HELibTech Briefing Paper No. 4. Chad, K. (2018) The student consumer and the rise of e-textbook platforms. HELibTech Briefing Paper No. 4. , p. 2) publishers often refuse to provide libraries with access to e-textbooks, instead “their preference has been a direct student retail model, usually via lecturer (faculty) adoption and with a subsequent purchase recommendation of the textbook to their students”. In the Australian higher education context, these issues have been explored through a national scoping study on the potential for open textbooks to assist with improving the experiences, success and retention of under-represented students (Lambert & Fadel, 2022Lambert, S. R., & Fadel, H. (2022) Open textbooks and social justice: A national scoping study. National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education, Curtin University. www​.ncsehe​.edu​.au​/publications​/open​​-textbooks​​-social​​-justiceLambert, S. R., & Fadel, H. (2022) Open textbooks and social justice: A national scoping study. National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education, Curtin University. www​.ncsehe​.edu​.au​/publications​/open​​-textbooks​​-social​​-justice). Lambert and Fadel’s study highlights that “[w]hile Australia’s unique legislative context has ensured a strong role for university libraries to provide no-cost loans of reading materials, this is challenged by the rise in complex digital textbook and online platform licencing deals” (2022, p. 1).

Lambert and Fadel’s study is framed within a social justice framework grounded in the work of Nancy Fraser (see Vincent, 2020Vincent, C. (Ed.) (2020) Nancy Fraser, social justice and education. Routledge. Vincent, C. (Ed.) (2020) Nancy Fraser, social justice and education. Routledge. ), structured around three principles: redistribution, recognition, and representation, with particular attention to diversifying textbook content. Their mixed-methods design combines a comprehensive literature review with qualitative interviews involving students and staff across roles (including academics, librarians, and e-learning support) alongside survey data. The findings align with international scholarship, particularly in Anglophone contexts such as the US and UK, highlighting the detrimental impact of expensive textbooks and restricted digital access in Australia. They also reveal the persistence of sexist, racist, and outdated textbooks that disproportionately affect underrepresented students and perpetuate inequitable learning experiences. The study further demonstrates the potential of OER, particularly open textbooks, to reduce financial barriers, expand digital access, and foster more inclusive higher education learning environments. However, persistent disparities in broadband connectivity in regional and remote Australia can limit access to multimedia-rich OER (Marshall, 2024Marshall, A. (2024) A new rural digital divide? Taking stock of geographical digital inclusion in Australia. Media International Australia, 190 (1), 68–84. Marshall, A. (2024) A new rural digital divide? Taking stock of geographical digital inclusion in Australia. Media International Australia, 190(1), 68–84. ), underscoring the need to address digital inequities if OER are to genuinely democratise education.

While Lambert and Fadel’s study did not specifically focus on the development of OERs and open textbooks for university language learning, this is a discipline that is especially well-suited for exploration due to its historical reliance on ‘textbooks’ as artifacts that act as de facto curriculum, shaping both content delivery and pedagogical practices.

OERs and (world) languages11.In the Australian context, the term languages (plural) refers to all languages other than English taught in schools, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages and Auslan (ACARA, 2011ACARA (2011) The shape of the Australian curriculum: Languages. http://​www​.acara​.edu​.au​/verve​/_resources​/Languages_​​-_Shape​_of​_the​_Australian​_Curriculum​_new​.pdfACARA (2011) The shape of the Australian curriculum: Languages. http://​www​.acara​.edu​.au​/verve​/_resources​/Languages_​​-_Shape​_of​_the​_Australian​_Curriculum​_new​.pdf). In this paper, I also use world languages (WL) — a term more common in the US—to refer to languages traditionally framed as ‘modern’ or ‘foreign’, which may also function as community or heritage languages. Such labels reflect deeper systemic issues, as many programs remain grounded in monoglossic conceptions of language as a bounded entity tied to ethnicity, culture, and the colonial, nation-state (García, 2019García, O. (2019) Decolonizing foreign, second, heritage and first languages — Implications for education. In D. Macedo (Ed.), Decolonizing Foreign Language Education — The Misteachings of English and Other Colonial Languages (pp. 152–168). Routledge. García, O. (2019) Decolonizing foreign, second, heritage and first languages — Implications for education. In D. Macedo (Ed.), Decolonizing Foreign Language Education — The Misteachings of English and Other Colonial Languages (pp. 152–168). Routledge. ; Demuro & Gurney, 2021Demuro, E., & Gurney, L. (2021) Languages/languaging as world-making: the ontological bases of language. Language Sciences, 83 , 101307. Demuro, E., & Gurney, L. (2021) Languages/languaging as world-making: the ontological bases of language. Language Sciences, 83, 101307. ; Licata, 2021Licata, G. (2021) A raciolinguistic perspective on the structure of language programs and departments. L2 Journal, 13 (1). Licata, G. (2021) A raciolinguistic perspective on the structure of language programs and departments. L2 Journal, 13(1). ). education

Language learning textbooks have long been regarded as function as “the bedrock of syllabus design and lesson planning” (Kramsch, 1988Kramsch, C. (1988) The cultural discourse of foreign language textbooks. In A. J. Singerman (Ed.), Towards a new integration of language and culture (pp. 63–68). Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages.Kramsch, C. (1988) The cultural discourse of foreign language textbooks. In A. J. Singerman (Ed.), Towards a new integration of language and culture (pp. 63–68). Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages., p. 63), and thus considered a sine qua non component of the language learning experience (Gurney & Díaz, 2020Gurney, L., & Díaz, A. (2020) Coloniality, neoliberalism and the language textbook: Unravelling the symbiosis in Spanish as a foreign language. Language, Culture and Society, 2 (2), 149–173. Gurney, L., & Díaz, A. (2020) Coloniality, neoliberalism and the language textbook: Unravelling the symbiosis in Spanish as a foreign language. Language, Culture and Society, 2(2), 149–173. ). Yet, they also have faced significant criticism for traditionally centring privileged voices while largely homogenising, invisibilising and, in some cases, completely erasing the existence of marginalised communities and their lived experiences (Bori, 2022Bori, P. (2022) Representation in coursebooks. In J. Norton & H. Buchanan (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Materials Development for Language Teaching (pp. 123–135). Routledge. Bori, P. (2022) Representation in coursebooks. In J. Norton & H. Buchanan (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Materials Development for Language Teaching (pp. 123–135). Routledge. ; Canale, 2021Canale, G. (2021) The language textbook: Representation, interaction and learning. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 34 (2), 113–118. Canale, G. (2021) The language textbook: Representation, interaction and learning. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 34(2), 113–118. ; Padilla & Vana, 2024Padilla, L., & Vana, R. (Eds.) (2024) Representation, inclusion and social justice in world language teaching: Research and pedagogy for inclusive classrooms. Routledge. Padilla, L., & Vana, R. (Eds.) (2024) Representation, inclusion and social justice in world language teaching: Research and pedagogy for inclusive classrooms. Routledge. ). Most mainstream language learning/teaching resources available also neglect to engage explicitly with pervasive monolingual(ising), monoglossic language ideologies (Demuro & Gurney, 2021Demuro, E., & Gurney, L. (2021) Languages/languaging as world-making: the ontological bases of language. Language Sciences, 83 , 101307. Demuro, E., & Gurney, L. (2021) Languages/languaging as world-making: the ontological bases of language. Language Sciences, 83, 101307. ; García, 2019García, O. (2019) Decolonizing foreign, second, heritage and first languages — Implications for education. In D. Macedo (Ed.), Decolonizing Foreign Language Education — The Misteachings of English and Other Colonial Languages (pp. 152–168). Routledge. García, O. (2019) Decolonizing foreign, second, heritage and first languages — Implications for education. In D. Macedo (Ed.), Decolonizing Foreign Language Education — The Misteachings of English and Other Colonial Languages (pp. 152–168). Routledge. ; Gurney & Demuro, 2022Gurney, L., & Demuro, E. (2022) Beyond coloniality and monolingualism: decolonial reflections on languages education — Mas allá de la colonialidad y el monolingüismo: Reflexiones decoloniales sobre la enseñanza de lenguas. Teaching in Higher Education, 27 (4), 502–511. Gurney, L., & Demuro, E. (2022) Beyond coloniality and monolingualism: decolonial reflections on languages education — Mas allá de la colonialidad y el monolingüismo: Reflexiones decoloniales sobre la enseñanza de lenguas. Teaching in Higher Education, 27(4), 502–511. ) and (long-standing) translanguaging/translingual practices among many speech communities (Risager, 2018Risager, K. (2018) Representations of the world in language textbooks. Multilingual Matters. Risager, K. (2018) Representations of the world in language textbooks. Multilingual Matters. ).

Furthermore, traditional textbooks often perpetuate narratives of neo-liberal worldview and lifestyle, which privileges anthropocentric perspectives, consumerism, individualism, self-branding, entrepreneurship, competition and material wealth (Bori & Block, 2024Bori, P., & Block, D. (2024) Critical textbook analysis in Spanish language teaching: identifying neoliberal content. Journal of Spanish Language Teaching, 11 (2), 138–151. Bori, P., & Block, D. (2024) Critical textbook analysis in Spanish language teaching: identifying neoliberal content. Journal of Spanish Language Teaching, 11(2), 138–151. ; Prádanos, 2015Prádanos, L. I. (2015) The pedagogy of degrowth: Teaching Hispanic studies in the age of social inequality and ecological collapse. Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies, 19 (1), 153–168. Prádanos, L. I. (2015) The pedagogy of degrowth: Teaching Hispanic studies in the age of social inequality and ecological collapse. Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies, 19(1), 153–168. ). These perspectives, in turn, overlook the critical intersections of language coloniality, the beyond-human world, and ecological justice, failing to engage with the broader implications of sustainability and interconnectedness.

By ignoring the interconnectedness of language, culture, and the environment, traditional (language) textbooks fail to address how climate change, exploitation of natural resources and overall environmental collapse disproportionately impact marginalised communities including Indigenous peoples whose languages and ways of knowing are deeply tied to the land (see Prádanos, 2015Prádanos, L. I. (2015) The pedagogy of degrowth: Teaching Hispanic studies in the age of social inequality and ecological collapse. Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies, 19 (1), 153–168. Prádanos, L. I. (2015) The pedagogy of degrowth: Teaching Hispanic studies in the age of social inequality and ecological collapse. Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies, 19(1), 153–168. ; and more recently, Shah, et al., 2025Shah, W. A., Jatoi, Q. & Shah, U. R. (2025) De-centering the anthropocentric worldview in language textbooks: A posthumanist call for discursive reparations for sustainable ELT. Linguistics and Education, 86 , 101397. Shah, W. A., Jatoi, Q. & Shah, U. R. (2025) De-centering the anthropocentric worldview in language textbooks: A posthumanist call for discursive reparations for sustainable ELT. Linguistics and Education, 86, 101397. , who propose a posthumanist framework that unsettles anthropocentric worldviews in textbooks, opening space for planetary thinking and more inclusive pedagogies). This omission not only reinforces ecological apathy but also misses an opportunity to foster critical, climate-conscious perspectives in language education, aligning it with broader goals of sustainability and justice.

The pursuit of equity, social and ecological justice in language education demands a conscious effort to centre the voices and experiences of marginalised communities. This involves a critical examination of how language can operate as both a mirror of societal inequities and a mechanism that perpetuates them, as well as a commitment to using language education as a tool for empowerment and resistance (Badwan, 2021Badwan, K. (2021) Language in a globalised world. Springer. Badwan, K. (2021) Language in a globalised world. Springer. ; Ortaçtepe Hart, 2023Ortaçtepe Hart, D. (2023) Social justice and the language classroom: Reflection, action, and transformation. Edinburgh University Press.Ortaçtepe Hart, D. (2023) Social justice and the language classroom: Reflection, action, and transformation. Edinburgh University Press.). Achieving this transformative vision requires language educators to rethink their pedagogical practices and reevaluate the resources that underpin such practices.

Currently, only a handful of emerging language learning OERs focus on disrupting histories of intersectional exclusion and social injustice from beginner language learning levels (see, for example, these works spanning Spanish, French, Portuguese and German language learning contexts, Abel et al., 2020Abel, B., Berroth, E., Djavadghazaryans, A., Gallagher, M. O., King, A. R., May-Chu, K., Pfleger, S., Stewart, F., & Young, A. D. (2020) Grenzenlos Deutsch: Co-creating Open Educational Resources through Feminist Collaboration. Feminist German Studies, 36 (1), 1–23. Abel, B., Berroth, E., Djavadghazaryans, A., Gallagher, M. O., King, A. R., May-Chu, K., Pfleger, S., Stewart, F., & Young, A. D. (2020) Grenzenlos Deutsch: Co-creating Open Educational Resources through Feminist Collaboration. Feminist German Studies, 36(1), 1–23. ; Blattner et al., 2023Blattner, G., Dalola, A., & Roulon, S. (2023) Disruptive French: Using OER to promote linguistic justice in the French-language classroom. Second Language Research & Practice, 4 (1), 141–152.Blattner, G., Dalola, A., & Roulon, S. (2023) Disruptive French: Using OER to promote linguistic justice in the French-language classroom. Second Language Research & Practice, 4(1), 141–152.; Ceciliano & Notman, 2021Ceciliano, J., & Notman, L. (2021) Fulfilling a wish list: Creating an OER beginning Spanish textbook and curriculum. Second Language Research & Practice, 2 (1), 129–139. Ceciliano, J., & Notman, L. (2021) Fulfilling a wish list: Creating an OER beginning Spanish textbook and curriculum. Second Language Research & Practice, 2(1), 129–139. ; da Silva, 2022da Silva, E. V. (2022) A game-changer: Open educational resources (OERs) in the teaching of portuguese. In C. Becker Lopes Perna & M. Saraiva Carilo (Eds.), Portuguese as an Additional Language (PAL): Research-Informed Pedagogical Approaches (pp. 163–183). Lexington Books.da Silva, E. V. (2022) A game-changer: Open educational resources (OERs) in the teaching of portuguese. In C. Becker Lopes Perna & M. Saraiva Carilo (Eds.), Portuguese as an Additional Language (PAL): Research-Informed Pedagogical Approaches (pp. 163–183). Lexington Books.; Rothe, 2023Rothe, L. (2023) Representations of diversity in a novice-level Language classroom and beyond: An engaging semester project. NECTFL Review, 90 , 11–30.Rothe, L. (2023) Representations of diversity in a novice-level Language classroom and beyond: An engaging semester project. NECTFL Review, 90, 11–30.; Rothe et al., 2023Rothe, L., Tsui, C. K., García, P. A., & McCloskey, M. B. (2023) Creating safe spaces: Diverse instructional materials for world language learners. NECTFL Review, 90 , 57–79.Rothe, L., Tsui, C. K., García, P. A., & McCloskey, M. B. (2023) Creating safe spaces: Diverse instructional materials for world language learners. NECTFL Review, 90, 57–79.; Young et al., 2021Young, A. D., Terveer, L., Stewart, F., Pfleger, S., Gallagher, M. O., & Abel, B. M. (2021) Diversity, social justice, and accessibility in Grenzenlos Deutsch: Reflections on digital curation. Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies, 57 (3), 303–309. Young, A. D., Terveer, L., Stewart, F., Pfleger, S., Gallagher, M. O., & Abel, B. M. (2021) Diversity, social justice, and accessibility in Grenzenlos Deutsch: Reflections on digital curation. Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies, 57(3), 303–309. ). These resources explicitly articulate their ethos in relation to decoloniality, social justice, and inclusivity. For instance, Grenzenlos Deutsch Grenzenlos Deutsch: An Open- Access Curriculum for Beginning German n.d.). https://​grenzenlos​​-deutsch​.com​/about​/instructors​/#gsc​.tab​=0Grenzenlos Deutsch: An Open- Access Curriculum for Beginning German n.d.). https://​grenzenlos​​-deutsch​.com​/about​/instructors​/#gsc​.tab​=0 (German Without Borders, published in 2020), which is used in the Australian context, describes their curriculum as “actively feminist, anti-racist, anti-classist, anti-ableist, and LGBTQIA+ friendly”. In the case of Spanish, Ecologías Hispanas (Amores & Baptista), an intermediate level OER developed in the US context, this OER places the environment at its core, fostering “an appreciation of the Spanish-speaking world by exploring the interconnected community ecologies shaped by diverse cultural and natural environments, while also highlighting their unique distinctions”.

Overall, despite the growing global momentum around OERs that reflect critical, intersectional, decolonial, and justice-oriented perspectives, there remains a significant gap, particularly, in the Australian context. Locally developed/adapted OERs that centre these values — integrating social and ecological justice alongside localised specificities — are still scarce (Díaz, 2024Díaz, A. R. (2024) (Re) centring Diversity in Language Pedagogies through Open Access Educational Resources. In Veliz, L. (Ed.) Multiculturalism and Multilingualism in Education (pp. 192–211). Brill. Díaz, A. R. (2024) (Re) centring Diversity in Language Pedagogies through Open Access Educational Resources. In Veliz, L. (Ed.) Multiculturalism and Multilingualism in Education (pp. 192–211). Brill. ). This gap in learning resources becomes even more pronounced when considering the specific challenges and opportunities faced by Spanish and Latin American Studies departments in Australian universities. As Heinrichs (2020)Heinrichs, D. H. (2020) Decoloniality, Spanish and Latin American studies in Australian universities: es un mundo ch’ixi posible? Third World Thematics: A TWQ Journal, 5 (1–2), 37–59. Heinrichs, D. H. (2020) Decoloniality, Spanish and Latin American studies in Australian universities: es un mundo ch’ixi posible? Third World Thematics: A TWQ Journal, 5(1–2), 37–59. explains, these departments face the dual pressure of presenting themselves as competitive and marketable to counter high attrition rates (Amorati, 2018Amorati, R. (2018) Making languages marketable: An analysis of a promotional brochure for prospective students in an Australian tertiary institution. Language Learning in Higher Education, 8 (2), 313–331. Amorati, R. (2018) Making languages marketable: An analysis of a promotional brochure for prospective students in an Australian tertiary institution. Language Learning in Higher Education, 8(2), 313–331. ), thereby perpetuating capitalist discourses shaped by neoliberal and colonial forces. On the other hand, they also have to grapple with the challenge of engaging with highly diverse Spanish-speaking communities, Indigenous languages, and the complex geopolitical entanglements that define what we know today as ‘Spanish’ and its unique positionality as a historically colonial language (Veliz et al., 2024Veliz, L., Díaz, A. R., & Heinrichs, D. H. (2024) Introduction to the special issue: Pluriversalizing the teaching and learning of Spanish. Critical Multilingualism Studies, 11 (2), i–xvi. Veliz, L., Díaz, A. R., & Heinrichs, D. H. (2024) Introduction to the special issue: Pluriversalizing the teaching and learning of Spanish. Critical Multilingualism Studies, 11(2), i–xvi. ).

Against this backdrop, this paper shifts the focus to two open-access OERs developed for beginning and intermediate Spanish as a world language courses at an Australian university. Although these OERs were initially conceived during the transition to emergency online teaching, their creation was fuelled by a deep dissatisfaction with long-standing issues and a strong aspiration for transformative change in beginning and intermediate university Spanish language courses. The existing mandatory textbook, which had functioned as the de facto curriculum since the inception of the Spanish language program more than two decades prior, posed several difficult challenges. To begin with, this textbook was informed by outdated teaching methodologies, featured problematic sequencing of content, and included inauthentic materials (particularly audiovisual resources) that failed to resonate with or reflect the diverse realities of our learners. Furthermore, its strong US–Mexico focus further offered a narrow cultural lens that overlooked the wider diversity of the Spanish-speaking world. The development of these OER sought to address these limitations.

The goal was to design and develop two interconnected, yet distinct OERs designed to complement in-class work and support self-directed, independent Spanish language learning. One aimed at ab initio and introductory-level learners (A1–A2 CEFR levels), offering scaffolded content that focuses on building foundational communicative competence, basic intercultural awareness, and learner autonomy, and another one building on this foundational work, and intended for intermediate learners (A2.2/B1.1–B1.2). These resources also aimed to disrupt traditional paradigms by addressing the complexities of Spanish language education, foregrounding inclusivity, equity, and decolonial approaches to language learning.

Advancing DEIS through a JUNTXS stance

In this section, I will examine how OERs can embody and respond to DEIS principles by focusing on the development and publication of two resources specifically created for beginning and intermediate Spanish language courses within the Australian higher education context. In addition to the pedagogical concerns outlined above, financial accessibility was a significant issue. The prescribed textbook and its accompanying digital platform were prohibitively expensive for many students, particularly those taking language courses as single-semester electives, a common scenario in Australian programs. Inequities were further intensified by single-use access codes required to unlock essential materials such as audiovisual resources and revision quizzes. While the platform offered the convenience of single sign-on integration with the university’s Learning Management System, its exclusivity and cost ultimately undermined equitable access to the course (see Lambert & Fadel, 2022Lambert, S. R., & Fadel, H. (2022) Open textbooks and social justice: A national scoping study. National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education, Curtin University. www​.ncsehe​.edu​.au​/publications​/open​​-textbooks​​-social​​-justiceLambert, S. R., & Fadel, H. (2022) Open textbooks and social justice: A national scoping study. National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education, Curtin University. www​.ncsehe​.edu​.au​/publications​/open​​-textbooks​​-social​​-justice, for in depth analysis of these issues in the Australian higher education context).

The periodic printing of new textbook editions every few years also raised significant sustainability and environmental concerns. Each new edition, often with only minor revisions that did little to justify the environmental cost, required ongoing work to update lesson plans and assessment. Additionally, the reliance on printed handouts to supplement the textbook’s inadequacies further exacerbated the issue, creating a cycle of wasteful practices that were unsustainable. These concerns — voiced by both students and the teaching team — were fundamentally at odds with the imperative to adopt environmentally responsible practices in education. Developing these OERs provided an opportunity to break this cycle by creating dynamic, adaptable, and fully digital resources that aligned with sustainability goals and reduce the environmental footprint of language teaching.

Overall, the development of these OERs was thus a deliberate response to these multifaceted challenges, driven by a desire to create learning resources that embodied a pedagogical vision rooted in critical, decolonial, and intersectional feminist approaches, fostering transformative and liberatory learning experiences. This initiative aligned with The University of QueenslandThe University of Queensland n.d.). JUNTXS — Introductory Spanish. UQ Pressbooks. https://​uq​.press​books​.pub​/intro​spanish/The University of Queensland n.d.). JUNTXS — Introductory Spanish. UQ Pressbooks. https://​uq​.press​books​.pub​/intro​spanish/ library’s acquisition of an institutional license to use a web-based authoring and publishing open textbook platform and coincided with the growing availability of active learning tools, enabling the integration of dynamic and interactive activities to enhance engagement and inclusivity.

JUNTXS and +JUNTXS, published in 2021 on the Pressbooks platform, were the first Open Access textbooks released by The University of QueenslandThe University of Queensland n.d.). JUNTXS — Introductory Spanish. UQ Pressbooks. https://​uq​.press​books​.pub​/intro​spanish/The University of Queensland n.d.). JUNTXS — Introductory Spanish. UQ Pressbooks. https://​uq​.press​books​.pub​/intro​spanish/ and the first Spanish language learning OERs of their kind in Australia. Their development marked an initial step toward embedding justice-oriented perspectives in open Spanish language resources in this context. Since then, two further Spanish OERs have been published: Español Down Under: Spanish for Australia and New Zealand (Castellano et al., 2023Castellano, R. L., Holas, I., & Rodriguez, F. L. R. (2023) Español Down Under: Spanish for Australia and New Zealand. Deakin University. https://​oercollective​.caul​.edu​.au​/espanol​​-down​​-under/Castellano, R. L., Holas, I., & Rodriguez, F. L. R. (2023) Español Down Under: Spanish for Australia and New Zealand. Deakin University. https://​oercollective​.caul​.edu​.au​/espanol​​-down​​-under/) and Aprendiendo Español en Australia: Principiante [Learning Spanish in Australia: Beginners] (Mejía & Chaves-Solís, 2024Mejía, G., & Chaves-Solís, S. (2024) Aprendiendo Español en Australia: Principiante. RMIT University.Mejía, G., & Chaves-Solís, S. (2024) Aprendiendo Español en Australia: Principiante. RMIT University.). Together, these projects signal the growing momentum of Spanish language OER production in Australia. Within this expanding field, JUNTXS and +JUNTXS remain distinctive for their explicit engagement with DEIS principles, offering one possible pathway for integrating justice-oriented commitments into OER design.

The intention behind the development of these OERs was further crystallised in their title, which was intentionally conceived to reflect a commitment to undoing knowledge hierarchies and addressing the underlying power dynamics in knowledge production. The choice of title was therefore deliberate, aiming to encapsulate and reinforce this pedagogical ethos. The titles, JUNTXS and +JUNTXS, adapt the Spanish adjective ‘juntos/as’, which can translate as 'together,' ‘altogether’, ‘side by side’ or ‘with each other’. The title of the intermediate level OER, +JUNTXS, incorporates the ‘+’ sign to represent más (more), creating a wordplay that can be interpreted as ‘closer together’ or ‘more, together’. As such, these titles embody the pedagogical vision of these courses as a shared journey — one that centres collaboration, mutual learning, and the co-construction of knowledge (Takaki, 2020Takaki, N. H. (2020) Exercising southern and decolonial (self) critique in translanguaging: For a juntos stance. Revista X, 15 (1), 32–54. Takaki, N. H. (2020) Exercising southern and decolonial (self) critique in translanguaging: For a juntos stance. Revista X, 15(1), 32–54. ).

Indeed, in the reimagined form of the adjective juntos that gives these OERs their title, the default, generic masculine plural ending -os is replaced with the consonant x, producing a term pronounced approximately as [hun-tes] or [hun-teks] in English. This substitution, rooted in political activism, has become a symbol of inclusivity in Spanish, challenging the gender binary embedded in its grammatical structures. Although the use of ‘x’ is not formally recognised by linguistic authorities and is often met with resistance, it signals an intentional departure from colonial logics that perpetuate the masculine-feminine binary, instead centring marginalised communities, including Indigenous and Afro-descendant voices within the Spanish-speaking world (Acosta Matos, 2018Acosta Matos, M. M. (2018) Graphic representations of grammatical gender in Spanish language Anarchist publications. Anarchist Developments in Cultural Studies (1), 29–48. https://​academicworks​.cuny​.edu​/cc​_pubs​/901/Acosta Matos, M. M. (2018) Graphic representations of grammatical gender in Spanish language Anarchist publications. Anarchist Developments in Cultural Studies (1), 29–48. https://​academicworks​.cuny​.edu​/cc​_pubs​/901/; Parra & Serafini, 2021Parra, M. L., & Serafini, E. J. (2021) “Bienvenidxs todes”: El lenguaje inclusivo desde una perspectiva crítica para las clases de español. Journal of Spanish Language Teaching, 8 (2), 143–160. Parra, M. L., & Serafini, E. J. (2021) “Bienvenidxs todes”: El lenguaje inclusivo desde una perspectiva crítica para las clases de español. Journal of Spanish Language Teaching, 8(2), 143–160. ). It is important to note that the use of ‘x’ in this way has also faced criticism for its lack of accessibility, as it cannot be easily pronounced, or processed by screen readers. Despite these limitations, it was strategically selected for the title as a subversive move — an emblem of resistance to normative structures and a reflection of the project’s decolonial and intersectional feminist ethos.

The content of these OERs is structured across two sets of four modules, designed to be explored over an academic year, with each module addressing themes relevant to everyday life. While the modules are designed to be explored sequentially, learners have the flexibility to revisit and consolidate the material as needed. Importantly, the content and interactive activities within these modules are dynamic, evolving in response to learner feedback and contributions from peers, ensuring their continual relevance and improvement. Each module spans 3–4 weeks, with in-class activities that provide opportunities to apply the knowledge and skills gained. The modules feature carefully curated materials and activity sequences aimed at fostering curiosity, promoting critical reflection, and expanding learners’ social, political, and ecological imaginations. As such these OERs encourage learners to challenge normative frameworks and embrace not only cultural and linguistic diversity, but diversity in all its forms.

The following table offers a visual summary of key concepts and illustrative examples that demonstrate how these OERs actively respond to and embody a commitment to each of the DEIS imperatives. While the table format imposes a conceptual separation among the DEIS imperatives, it is crucial to note that they are deeply interconnected and cannot be fully understood in isolation from one another. For instance, equity and inclusion are intrinsically tied to accessibility, as dismantling systemic barriers ensures that learners — especially those from historically marginalised linguistic and cultural communities — have equitable opportunities to engage with and benefit from language education. Similarly, diversity and inclusion are also deeply interconnected, as fostering diversity in language learning requires creating spaces that challenge hegemonic norms, centre historically excluded voices, and affirm the value of all linguistic varieties, cultural perspectives, and intersecting identities — including those shaped by intersections of gender, race, ethnicity, disability, and socio-economic status — as integral to a transformative and liberatory language learning experience.

The OERs also emphasize multimodal, media-rich content designed to engage learners through channels familiar to them, such as social media platforms like Instagram, X (Twitter), TikTok, Spotify, and blogs — platforms that extend learning beyond the traditional classroom setting and leverage students’ existing digital literacies. This open-architecture curricular design fosters a participatory approach where learners critically engage with the materials and perspectives presented, co-constructing content alongside their peers and instructors (Campbell, 2021Campbell, C. (2021) Open architecture curricular design. In B. L. Leaver, D. E. Davidson, & C. Campbell (Eds.), Transformative Language Learning and Teaching (pp. 43–50). Cambridge University Press.Campbell, C. (2021) Open architecture curricular design. In B. L. Leaver, D. E. Davidson, & C. Campbell (Eds.), Transformative Language Learning and Teaching (pp. 43–50). Cambridge University Press.). For beginner learners, these critical discussions may require the use of English as a shared linguistic bridge to navigate complex topics. Learners are encouraged to embrace the discomfort that often arises when grappling with nuanced and unresolved questions. The goal is to foster empathy, celebrate diverse lived experiences — including those of learners themselves — and develop meaningful communicative skills in Spanish throughout this journey.

The learning process underpinning these OERs centres on stimulating personal change and is grounded in Mezirow’s concept of transformative learning (Leaver et al., 2021Leaver, B. L., Davidson, D. E., & Campbell, C. (2021) Transformative language learning and teaching. Cambridge University Press. Leaver, B. L., Davidson, D. E., & Campbell, C. (2021) Transformative language learning and teaching. Cambridge University Press. ; Mezirow, 1990Mezirow, J. (1990) Fostering critical reflection in adulthood. Jossey-Bass Publishers.Mezirow, J. (1990) Fostering critical reflection in adulthood. Jossey-Bass Publishers.). This conceptualisation of learning is also inextricably linked to critical pedagogy (Freire, 1996Freire, P. (1996) Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum.Freire, P. (1996) Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum.) as change and transformation are centred on liberatory teaching and learning practices that problematise dominant ways of thinking, being, and doing in the world. In turn, these practices are complemented by intersectional feminism (see, hooks, 2014hooks, B. (2014) Teaching to transgress. Routledge. hooks, B. (2014) Teaching to transgress. Routledge. ), which provides this vision with ‘entry points’ into exploration of self and others’ diverse identities, potential ex/inclusions and sense of belonging across contexts. More specifically, at the intersection of language and race, there also emerge raciolinguistic perspectives theorised by Flores and Rosa (2015)Flores, N., & Rosa, J. (2015) Undoing appropriateness: Raciolinguistic ideologies and language diversity in education. Harvard Educational Review, 85 (2), 149–171. Flores, N., & Rosa, J. (2015) Undoing appropriateness: Raciolinguistic ideologies and language diversity in education. Harvard Educational Review, 85(2), 149–171. . These scholars draw on theories of language ideologies and racialization to denaturalise the interplay between language and race, exposing how even so-called ‘proficient’ speakers of standardised varieties are often constructed as deficient when they are racialised as non-white. These perspectives are part of the broader structural project of contesting modernity/coloniality and white supremacy in languages and Applied Linguistics (Rosa & Flores, 2021Rosa, J., & Flores, N. (2021) Decolonization, language, and race in applied linguistics and social justice. Applied Linguistics, 42 (6), 1162–1167. Rosa, J., & Flores, N. (2021) Decolonization, language, and race in applied linguistics and social justice. Applied Linguistics, 42(6), 1162–1167. ).

As explored above, these OERs take up this raciolinguistic critique by explicitly foregrounding the pluricentric, contested, and ideologically saturated nature of the Spanish language. These resources actively challenge dominant constructions of linguistic ‘purity’ and ‘nativeness’ by exposing how such notions are racialised and colonial in origin (see for instance, some critical questions in Figure 1 below). For example, learners engage with tasks that problematise the privileging of Peninsular Spanish, critically reflect on the sociolinguistic hierarchies that position Caribbean, Indigenous, or African diasporic varieties as less legitimate, and analyse real-world media that illustrates how racialised speakers are policed for their accents, registers, or codeswitching practices. In doing so, these OERs not only decentre dominant language ideologies, but also invite students to interrogate their own positionality within raciolinguistic hierarchies, and to consider how linguistic legitimacy is shaped by whiteness, nationalism, and coloniality.

Furthermore, as intimated throughout this section, these OERs were purposefully designed to align with and actively contribute to several key SDGs. Most directly, they respond to SDG 4 (Quality Education) by offering openly licensed, high-quality learning materials that centre inclusive pedagogies, critical thinking, and plurilingual competence. These resources are accessible, self-directed, and adaptable, supporting the development of lifelong learning skills for students from diverse linguistic, racial, gendered, and socioeconomic backgrounds.

These OERs also contribute to SDG 5 (Gender Equality), but not through tokenistic inclusion or “add-and-stir” models of representation. They do so by embedding tasks and content that foreground intersectional gender justice, challenge normative gender roles, and amplify marginalised voices, including queer, feminist, and trans perspectives. Through digital innovation and co-creation, the OERs advance SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure) by modelling sustainable, collaborative, and community-informed approaches to resource development. Both JUNTXS and +JUNTXS help address SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) by removing financial barriers, enabling contextual adaptation, and reflecting the lived realities and linguistic varieties of historically excluded communities. The emphasis on relational ethics, decolonial critique, and anti-racist pedagogies further aligns these OERs with SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions), as they promote inclusive knowledge production and resist epistemic injustice. Finally, by privileging digital delivery over print and integrating ecological perspectives into language learning, these resources contribute to SDG 13 (Climate Action), fostering critical reflection on more-than-human relations, sustainability, and environmental justice (e.g., https://​uq​.press​books​.pub​/inter​spanish​/chapter​/predicciones/)

In lieu of a conclusion: What will it take to pave the way toward a DEIS‑aligned future for (languages) education through OERs?

This paper has explored the potential of OERs to transform language education and pave the way for a DEIS-aligned future, using as illustrative examples the development of OERs for beginner and intermediate Spanish language courses within the context of Australian higher education. These examples highlight the ways in which these resources can address issues of diversity, equity, inclusion, and sustainability while providing accessible, research-informed, and pedagogically robust materials tailored to the needs of a multilingual and multicultural student body.

However, it is important to acknowledge that the development of OERs does not support DEIS by default. Indeed, while the potential of OERs is significant, several challenges remain that must be addressed to fully realise their promise (see Adil et al., 2024Adil, H. M., Ali, S., Sultan, M., Ashiq, M., & Rafiq, M. (2024) Open education resources’ benefits and challenges in the academic world: a systematic review. Global Knowledge, Memory and Communication, 73 (3), 274–291. Adil, H. M., Ali, S., Sultan, M., Ashiq, M., & Rafiq, M. (2024) Open education resources’ benefits and challenges in the academic world: a systematic review. Global Knowledge, Memory and Communication, 73(3), 274–291. ; Ochieng & Gyasi, 2021Ochieng, V. O., & Gyasi, R. M. (2021) Open educational resources and social justice: Potentials and implications for research productivity in higher educational institutions. E-Learning and Digital Media, 18 (2), 105–124. Ochieng, V. O., & Gyasi, R. M. (2021) Open educational resources and social justice: Potentials and implications for research productivity in higher educational institutions. E-Learning and Digital Media, 18(2), 105–124. ).

Arguably, one of the most pressing ones is the need for institutions to provide sustained funding and support for educators who wish to develop OERs. Creating OERs demands a substantial investment of time, rigorous research, and meticulous curation, as well as deep critical reflection on one’s own positionalities. This process often involves engaging with diverse scholarly and (community-based) knowledge systems to ensure that OERs are research-informed, equitable, and inclusive (Lambert & Fadel, 2022Lambert, S. R., & Fadel, H. (2022) Open textbooks and social justice: A national scoping study. National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education, Curtin University. www​.ncsehe​.edu​.au​/publications​/open​​-textbooks​​-social​​-justiceLambert, S. R., & Fadel, H. (2022) Open textbooks and social justice: A national scoping study. National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education, Curtin University. www​.ncsehe​.edu​.au​/publications​/open​​-textbooks​​-social​​-justice). The academic labour involved in developing such learning materials is often invisibilised and undervalued (Hare, 2020Hare, S. (2020) A critical take on OER practices: Interrogating commercialization, colonialism, and content. In M. Bali, C. Cronin, L. Czerniewicz, R. DeRosa, & R. Jhangiani (Eds.), Open at the Margins. Pressbooks. https://​press​.rebus​.community​/openatthemargins​/chapter​/a​​-critical​​-take​​-on​​-oer​​-practices​​-interrogatingcommercialization​​-colonialism​​-and​​-content/Hare, S. (2020) A critical take on OER practices: Interrogating commercialization, colonialism, and content. In M. Bali, C. Cronin, L. Czerniewicz, R. DeRosa, & R. Jhangiani (Eds.), Open at the Margins. Pressbooks. https://​press​.rebus​.community​/openatthemargins​/chapter​/a​​-critical​​-take​​-on​​-oer​​-practices​​-interrogatingcommercialization​​-colonialism​​-and​​-content/). This reflects institutional priorities that privilege traditional research outputs aligned with dominant knowledge production systems over the development of learning resources and teaching-focused endeavours (see, Collins & Stone, 2019Collins, E., & Stone, G. (2019) Motivations for textbook and learning resource publishing: Do academics want to publish OA textbooks? LIBER Quarterly: The Journal of the Association of European Research Libraries, 29 (1), 1–19. Collins, E., & Stone, G. (2019) Motivations for textbook and learning resource publishing: Do academics want to publish OA textbooks? LIBER Quarterly: The Journal of the Association of European Research Libraries, 29(1), 1–19. , specifically in the UK context). This hierarchy perpetuates the devaluation of educational practices and reinforces the lingering perception of open scholarship practices as lacking prestige (Arthur & Hearn, 2024Arthur, P. L., & Hearn, L. (2024) Open scholarship in the humanities. Bloomsbury Academic. Arthur, P. L., & Hearn, L. (2024) Open scholarship in the humanities. Bloomsbury Academic. ).

A further challenge thus lies in the need to establish robust mechanisms for quality assurance and peer review to ensure that OERs uphold rigorous academic standards while remaining accessible, adaptable, and responsive to diverse educational contexts. Integrating impact metrics, such as learner engagement and institutional adoption and adaptation, can further enhance the evaluation and recognition of these resources. Additionally, acknowledging and rewarding the development of digital scholarship, such as OERs, as legitimate research outputs within institutional frameworks is crucial. Such recognition would not only validate the scholarly contributions of OER creators but also incentivise their development, fostering a culture that values innovation and accessibility in educational practices.

As highlighted in the 2019 UNESCO Recommendation on OERs, the development of these resources also requires (language) educators to acquire specific competencies, such as open licensing, digital content creation, and inclusive pedagogical practices tailored to diverse linguistic and cultural contexts (see also, Nascimbeni et al., 2024Nascimbeni, F., Burgos, D., Brunton, J., & Ehlers, U.-D. (2024) A competence framework for educators to boost open educational practices in higher education. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 39 (2), 150–169. Nascimbeni, F., Burgos, D., Brunton, J., & Ehlers, U.-D. (2024) A competence framework for educators to boost open educational practices in higher education. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 39(2), 150–169. ; Tualaulelei & Green, 2022Tualaulelei, E., & Green, N. C. (2022) Supporting educators’ professional learning for equity pedagogy: the promise of open educational practices. Journal for Multicultural Education, 16 (5), 430–442. Tualaulelei, E., & Green, N. C. (2022) Supporting educators’ professional learning for equity pedagogy: the promise of open educational practices. Journal for Multicultural Education, 16(5), 430–442. ). For educators working with Indigenous and less widely taught languages, this process often entails additional considerations, such as engaging with community members to ensure that resources authentically reflect cultural knowledge(s), values, and linguistic nuances. Institutions must therefore provide ongoing professional learning opportunities which are not only accessible but also contextually relevant, equipping academic staff, learning designers and librarians alike (Salisbury et al., 2023Salisbury, F., Julien, B., Loch, B., Chang, S., & Lexis, L. (2023) From knowledge curator to knowledge creator: Academic libraries and open access textbook publishing. Journal of Librarianship and Scholarly Communication, 11 (1), eP14074. Salisbury, F., Julien, B., Loch, B., Chang, S., & Lexis, L. (2023) From knowledge curator to knowledge creator: Academic libraries and open access textbook publishing. Journal of Librarianship and Scholarly Communication, 11(1), eP14074. ; Seiferle-Valencia, 2020Seiferle-Valencia, M. (2020) It’s not (just) about the cost: Academic libraries and intentionally engaged OER for social justice. library trends, 69 (2), 469–487. Seiferle-Valencia, M. (2020) It’s not (just) about the cost: Academic libraries and intentionally engaged OER for social justice. library trends, 69(2), 469–487. ), with the skills and cultural responsiveness necessary to develop high-quality OERs that support both language revitalisation and equitable access to education (see, for example, Panigrahi, 2020Panigrahi, S. (2020) Can openness and open standards help revitalise marginalised languages? In D. Moxon, A. M. Serban, D. Potočnik, N. Connolly, L. Pasic, & V. Ștefan (Eds.), Young people, social inclusion and digitalisation: Emerging knowledge for practice and policy (pp. 73–85). Council of Europe and European Commission.Panigrahi, S. (2020) Can openness and open standards help revitalise marginalised languages? In D. Moxon, A. M. Serban, D. Potočnik, N. Connolly, L. Pasic, & V. Ștefan (Eds.), Young people, social inclusion and digitalisation: Emerging knowledge for practice and policy (pp. 73–85). Council of Europe and European Commission.).

It is also critical to acknowledge the potential for biases within OERs, as addressing such biases is essential to upholding the DEIS imperatives. Beyond (language) educators’ reflecting on their own positionalities, it is important to consider the institutional contexts in which these OERs are developed. Many of the platforms supporting their creation are dominated by institutions in the Global North, raising concerns about the (re)production and perpetuation of Western-centric expectations, assumptions and perspectives through the selection of ‘knowledge(s)’ that are curated and ‘packaged’ for consumption (Bali et al., 2020Bali, M., Cronin, C., & Jhangiani, R. S. (2020) Framing open educational practices from a social justice perspective. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 1 (10), pp. 1–12. Bali, M., Cronin, C., & Jhangiani, R. S. (2020) Framing open educational practices from a social justice perspective. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 1(10), pp. 1–12. ; Mills et al., 2023Mills, A., Bali, M., & Eaton, L. (2023) How do we respond to generative AI in education? Open educational practices give us a framework for an ongoing process. Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching, 6 (1), 16–30.Mills, A., Bali, M., & Eaton, L. (2023) How do we respond to generative AI in education? Open educational practices give us a framework for an ongoing process. Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching, 6(1), 16–30.). It is, therefore, essential to continually question whose knowledge is prioritised, whose voices are centred, and whose interests are ultimately served in the production and dissemination of OERs.

Furthermore, while the relationship between OERs and SDGs promises transformative possibilities, it also demands a critical interrogation of the assumptions underlying this alignment. The SDGs, rooted in global frameworks often shaped by dominant geopolitical and economic powers, risk perpetuating neo-colonial dynamics if not critically examined (Arora-Jonsson, 2023Arora-Jonsson, S. (2023) The sustainable development goals: A universalist promise for the future. Futures, 146 , 103087. Arora-Jonsson, S. (2023) The sustainable development goals: A universalist promise for the future. Futures, 146, 103087. ). Additionally, Kopnina (2020)Kopnina, H. (2020) Education for the future? Critical evaluation of education for sustainable development goals. The Journal of Environmental Education, 51 (4), 280–291. Kopnina, H. (2020) Education for the future? Critical evaluation of education for sustainable development goals. The Journal of Environmental Education, 51(4), 280–291. shines a light on the limitations of the SDGs’ emphasis on “sustainable inclusive economic growth”, challenging its reliance on extractive and anthropocentric paradigms that reinforce colonial legacies. Indeed, in the context of languages education, sustainability is rarely prioritised or connected to ecological justice, leading to a neglect of the interconnectedness between human and nonhuman systems (De la Fuente, 2022De la Fuente, M. J. (Ed.) (2022) Education for sustainable development in foreign language learning: Content-based instruction in college-level curricula. Routledge.De la Fuente, M. J. (Ed.) (2022) Education for sustainable development in foreign language learning: Content-based instruction in college-level curricula. Routledge.). Moreover, they fail to centre Indigenous and other marginalised epistemologies that foreground relationality and reciprocity with the natural world, missing an opportunity to cultivate a more holistic and justice-oriented approach to sustainability.

These dynamics are particularly visible in the Spanish-speaking world, where language practices are deeply entangled with processes of extraction, displacement, and socio-environmental transformation. For instance, mining operations in regions such as the Andean highlands have not only disrupted Indigenous territorial sovereignty but have also endangered the transmission of languages like Quechua and Aymara, Indigenous languages that are intimately connected to land-based epistemologies and relational forms of knowledge that do not separate the human from the non-human (Anthias & Flores, 2024Anthias, P., & Flores, P. C. L. (Eds.) (2024) Neoextractivism and territorial disputes in Latin America: Social-ecological conflict and resistance on the front lines. Routledge.Anthias, P., & Flores, P. C. L. (Eds.) (2024) Neoextractivism and territorial disputes in Latin America: Social-ecological conflict and resistance on the front lines. Routledge.). The intersecting forces of climate change and migration are likewise reshaping multilingual ecologies across the region. Rural-to-urban migration — driven by drought, land degradation, and socio-environmental conflict — often results in language loss, while simultaneously producing new urban linguistic landscapes marked by displacement, economic precarity, and racialised language hierarchies (cf. Chappell & Barnes, 2023Chappell, W., & Barnes, S. (2023) Stereotypes, language, and race: Spaniards’ perception of Latin American immigrants. Journal of Linguistic Geography, 11 (2), 104–118. Chappell, W., & Barnes, S. (2023) Stereotypes, language, and race: Spaniards’ perception of Latin American immigrants. Journal of Linguistic Geography, 11(2), 104–118. ).

Gentrification in cities like Mexico City, Bogotá, and Buenos Aires further compounds these dynamics. As historically working-class and racialised neighbourhoods are transformed into cosmopolitan enclaves, dominant varieties of Spanish, and increasingly English, are valorised, while local dialects, Indigenous languages, and culturally embedded ways of speaking are erased, stigmatised, or commodified for elite consumption (Lynch, 2019Lynch, A. (Ed.) (2019) The Routledge handbook of Spanish in the global city. Routledge. Lynch, A. (Ed.) (2019) The Routledge handbook of Spanish in the global city. Routledge. ). These processes are underpinned by modern/colonial onto-epistemological logics that impose dualisms such as human/nature, mind/body, male/female, and oral/written, binaries that serve to devalue Indigenous, relational, and embodied ways of knowing. Language education, when uncritically aligned with these logics, often reinforces these hierarchies, reproducing the colonial separation between culture and ecology, and privileging standardised, disembodied, and “neutral” forms of linguistic knowledge.

These examples make clear that language is never a neutral tool for communication; it is deeply implicated in broader structures of dispossession, resistance, and environmental injustice. In this context, any meaningful engagement with ecological justice in language education must confront these colonial binaries and the material conditions they uphold. It must invite learners to critically examine how language, identity, place, and power are co-constructed, and to reflect on their own positionality within these shifting and contested ecologies.

To fully realise their emancipatory potential, OERs must thus resist perpetuating hegemonic onto-epistemologies and actively strive to disrupt the enduring legacy of coloniality and modernity’s dualisms (e.g., mind/body, nature/culture, reason/emotion) (Veliz et al., 2024Veliz, L., Díaz, A. R., & Heinrichs, D. H. (2024) Introduction to the special issue: Pluriversalizing the teaching and learning of Spanish. Critical Multilingualism Studies, 11 (2), i–xvi. Veliz, L., Díaz, A. R., & Heinrichs, D. H. (2024) Introduction to the special issue: Pluriversalizing the teaching and learning of Spanish. Critical Multilingualism Studies, 11(2), i–xvi. ). This requires an intentional commitment to co-creating knowledge with marginalised and underrepresented communities, ensuring that OERs not only provide access but also challenge power imbalances in determining whose knowledge(s), language practices and ways of being are valued. In languages education, where colonial and global hegemonic language varieties are consistently privileged, this disruption is particularly urgent.

Co-developing and co-authoring materials with students and educators from diverse institutions worldwide is essential to counteract these biases (Lambert & Fadel, 2022Lambert, S. R., & Fadel, H. (2022) Open textbooks and social justice: A national scoping study. National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education, Curtin University. www​.ncsehe​.edu​.au​/publications​/open​​-textbooks​​-social​​-justiceLambert, S. R., & Fadel, H. (2022) Open textbooks and social justice: A national scoping study. National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education, Curtin University. www​.ncsehe​.edu​.au​/publications​/open​​-textbooks​​-social​​-justice). Such collaborations ensure that OERs reflect a plurality of voices, perspectives, and linguistic practices, challenging the dominance of ‘standard’ linguistic varieties and creating space for multilingual, decolonial approaches to thrive. By addressing these structural inequities, OERs can move beyond inclusion to fundamentally transform the global education landscape, fostering equitable, just, and linguistically diverse learning environments.

However, realising this transformative potential also requires addressing the structural inequities that persist in access to OERs. One pressing issue is the persistence of digital access disparities, particularly in countries like Australia, where disparities in broadband connectivity, especially in regional and remote areas, can hinder access to multimedia-rich OERs (Marshall, 2024Marshall, A. (2024) A new rural digital divide? Taking stock of geographical digital inclusion in Australia. Media International Australia, 190 (1), 68–84. Marshall, A. (2024) A new rural digital divide? Taking stock of geographical digital inclusion in Australia. Media International Australia, 190(1), 68–84. ). Addressing these inequities is essential to ensure that OERs truly democratise education rather than exacerbate existing digital divides.

The long-term sustainability and relevance of OERs also remains a significant challenge. While their digital nature allows for updates to be implemented more readily than traditional printed textbooks, maintaining their relevance demands an ongoing commitment from authors to ensure the materials reflect current knowledge, pedagogical best practices, and a genuine commitment to accessibility and representation (Lambert & Fadel, 2022Lambert, S. R., & Fadel, H. (2022) Open textbooks and social justice: A national scoping study. National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education, Curtin University. www​.ncsehe​.edu​.au​/publications​/open​​-textbooks​​-social​​-justiceLambert, S. R., & Fadel, H. (2022) Open textbooks and social justice: A national scoping study. National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education, Curtin University. www​.ncsehe​.edu​.au​/publications​/open​​-textbooks​​-social​​-justice).

Grounded in the principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL), this involves creating content that is inherently flexible, accessible, and inclusive, designed to accommodate the diverse needs, preferences, and abilities of all learners. UDL emphasises multiple means of engagement, representation, and expression; for example, offering content in varied formats (e.g., text, audio, video, interactive tasks), allowing learners to demonstrate understanding in different ways (e.g., written responses, oral presentations, visual artefacts), and incorporating choice, relevance, and cultural responsiveness to sustain motivation and support learner autonomy. This also includes providing descriptive alternative text (alt text) for images (i.e., concise written descriptions that convey the essential information or function of a visual element) captions and transcripts for videos, and materials compatible with screen readers. These practices support multimodal content delivery that caters to diverse learning preferences, sensory needs, and accessibility requirements. Additionally, true inclusivity requires resources that are culturally responsive, linguistically diverse, and adaptable to support learners requiring ever-evolving assistive technologies or alternative formats, fostering equitable participation and engagement for all.

It is also important to acknowledge that another key challenge in the creation and adoption of OERs lies in the resistance expressed by both educators and students, which may stem from perceptions of lower academic legitimacy, lack of institutional support, additional labour burdens (particularly for already marginalised educators), or discomfort with pedagogical approaches that disrupt traditional hierarchies of knowledge production and authority. All of these underscore the importance of thoughtfully and explicitly integrating OERs into the students’ learning experience. This requires careful planning to ensure these resources are seamlessly embedded into curricula and pedagogical practices. Indeed, OERs should not be seen in isolation but as part of a larger ecology of “open pedagogical practices” (Stagg et al., 2018Stagg, A., Nguyen, L., Bossu, C., Partridge, H., Funk, J., & Judith, K. (2018) Open educational practices in Australia: A first-phase national audit of higher education. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 19 (3). Stagg, A., Nguyen, L., Bossu, C., Partridge, H., Funk, J., & Judith, K. (2018) Open educational practices in Australia: A first-phase national audit of higher education. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 19(3). ). This interconnected approach emphasises collaboration, adaptability, and the co-creation of knowledge, encouraging educators to integrate OERs alongside other open practices that empower learners and promote equity. Addressing these challenges is essential to harnessing the full potential of OERs in fostering equity, sustainability, and innovation in (languages) education.

While this paper has focused on the context of Spanish language education in Australian higher education, the insights shared here speak to broader conversations unfolding across global OER communities. The challenges of designing truly inclusive, decolonial, and sustainable educational resources are not unique to one region, and many educators around the world are grappling with similar tensions around language ideologies, epistemic violence, and the instrumentalisation of openness. Rather than positioning JUNTXS and +JUNTXS as universalisable models for embedding DEIS principles in language learning OERs, the approach taken here is explicitly situated and reflexive. These materials are presented as illustrative examples that translate theory into practice, not to prescribe a one-size-fits-all template, but to probe the possibilities, frictions, and limitations that arise when DEIS commitments are intentionally embedded in Spanish language education. Exploration of these resources is not intended to be generalisable across the diverse and heterogeneous field of Spanish language pedagogy. Instead, it foregrounds how, in a specific Australian university context, OERs can be designed to embody and test the tensions inherent in DEIS-oriented praxis. In this sense, the contribution of the paper is not to claim broad transferability but to offer insights that may hold inferential value for educators and researchers working in other contexts, while acknowledging that the outcomes and challenges are deeply shaped by local institutional, cultural, and curricular conditions.

Ultimately, development and adoption of language learning OERs within a holistic framework of open pedagogical practices can empower educators and learners to disrupt pervasive hegemonic language ideologies and create spaces for meaningful, agentic engagement with social and ecological justice. This vision reimagines languages education as a transformative and emancipatory force, (re)positioning it not merely as a pathway to commodified linguistic proficiency, but as a critical site for advancing equity, sustainability, and justice. Crucially, the work of DEIS-driven justice in open education is not a one-time achievement, but an ongoing, situated, and collective endeavour, one that calls us to learn with and from one another, and to remain accountable to the communities and knowledges which our educational materials engage and represent.