Introduction

Over the past few years, modern industrial countries in North America have experienced successive waves of immigration from Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, and Africa (IOM & NIDI, 2020International Organization for Migration (IOM) & the Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute (NIDI) (2020) Assessing immigration scenarios for the European Union in 2030: Relevant, realistic, and reliable? https://​publications​.iom​.int​/books​/assessing​-immigration​-scenarios​-european​-union​-2030International Organization for Migration (IOM) & the Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute (NIDI) (2020) Assessing immigration scenarios for the European Union in 2030: Relevant, realistic, and reliable? https://​publications​.iom​.int​/books​/assessing​-immigration​-scenarios​-european​-union​-2030). For example, as of 2021, more than 8,000,000 immigrants were living in Canada, accounting for roughly 21.5 percent of the total Canadian population (Statista Research Department, 2024Statista Research Department (2024) Immigration in Canada: Statistics and facts. www​.statista​.com​/topics​/2917​/immigration​-in​-canada/Statista Research Department (2024) Immigration in Canada: Statistics and facts. www​.statista​.com​/topics​/2917​/immigration​-in​-canada/). Similarly, in neighbouring the U.S., 14% of the nation’s residents were foreign-born in 2019, including those from the top countries of origin, such as Mexico, India, and China. The heterogeneous immigrant groups also become unique cultural-linguistic knowledge and diverse frames of reference that enrich school communities. By the end of 2021, the number of children and youth with diverse linguistic and cultural heritage who enrolled in Canadian schooling reached 39.1% of all Canadian children under 15 years old, most of whom came from Asian countries of ancestry (Statistics Canada, 2021Statistics Canada (2021, May 6). Asian heritage month…by the numbers. https://​www​.statcan​.gc​.ca​/en​/dai​/smr08​/2021​/smr08​_250Statistics Canada (2021, May 6). Asian heritage month…by the numbers. https://​www​.statcan​.gc​.ca​/en​/dai​/smr08​/2021​/smr08​_250).

In tandem with the rapidly increasing “superdiversity” (G. Li, 2021aLi, G. (2021a) Teaching superdiverse students in a transnational world. In G. Li, L. Marom, J. Anderson, J. Hare, & M. McTavish (Eds.), Superdiversity and teacher education (1st ed., pp.19–35). Routledge. Li, G. (2021a) Teaching superdiverse students in a transnational world. In G. Li, L. Marom, J. Anderson, J. Hare, & M. McTavish (Eds.), Superdiversity and teacher education (1st ed., pp.19–35). Routledge. ; Vertovec, 2007Vertovec, S. (2007) Superdiversity and its implications. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30 (6), 1024–1054. Vertovec, S. (2007) Superdiversity and its implications. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(6), 1024–1054. ) of the student population, there is a growing concern for diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) issues in the educational systems as educational opportunities and attainments gaps between learners of various geopolitical and socioeconomic factors, such as gender, race, SES, and regional/global dynamics, were found to continually shape students’ academic and developmental divergence (OECD, 2021OECD (2021) Education at a glance 2021: OECD indicators. OECD Publishing. OECD (2021) Education at a glance 2021: OECD indicators. OECD Publishing. ). Such educational inequities and differences were further intensified by the recent COVID-19 pandemic.

Despite the fact that there is a high presence of superdiverse learners in many Chinese classrooms, including those of foreign/modern/world language programmes and courses in Chinese and Chinese immersion or dual language programmes situated within mainstream school educational systems and heritage language classrooms outside of mainstream schools, simplified Mandarin is often taught as a language subject without attending to DEI issues in these classrooms (Lu & Troyan, 2022Lu, X., & Troyan, F. J. (2022) Diversity and inclusion of culturally and linguistically diverse students in K-12 Chinese language education. Foreign Language Annals, 55 , 684–703. Lu, X., & Troyan, F. J. (2022) Diversity and inclusion of culturally and linguistically diverse students in K-12 Chinese language education. Foreign Language Annals, 55, 684–703. ). The nature of the majority of North American Chinese classrooms is still characterized by a monolingual Chinese language ideology and a knowledge transmission model of teaching practices (Kong, 2022Kong, K. (2022) Crossing the river by feeling the stones: Understanding and integrating social justice in Chinese language class. The Modern Language Journal (Boulder, Colo.), 106 (4), 726–743. Kong, K. (2022) Crossing the river by feeling the stones: Understanding and integrating social justice in Chinese language class. The Modern Language Journal (Boulder, Colo.), 106(4), 726–743. ; Lu & Troyan, 2022Lu, X., & Troyan, F. J. (2022) Diversity and inclusion of culturally and linguistically diverse students in K-12 Chinese language education. Foreign Language Annals, 55 , 684–703. Lu, X., & Troyan, F. J. (2022) Diversity and inclusion of culturally and linguistically diverse students in K-12 Chinese language education. Foreign Language Annals, 55, 684–703. ; Xu & Valdez, 2024Xu, N., & Valdez, V. E. (2024) “We don’t talk about race in the classroom”: Examining Chinese dual language bilingual education teachers’ raciolinguistic ideologies and literacy pedagogy. Literacy Research: Theory, Method, and Practice, 73 (1), 193–216. Xu, N., & Valdez, V. E. (2024) “We don’t talk about race in the classroom”: Examining Chinese dual language bilingual education teachers’ raciolinguistic ideologies and literacy pedagogy. Literacy Research: Theory, Method, and Practice, 73(1), 193–216. ).

In fact, in many Chinese heritage language classrooms, despite the vast inter-cultural and intra-cultural or within-ethnic diversity among the learners (G. Li et al., 2026Li, G., Lin, Z., & Shen, S. (2026) Chinese heritage language teachers’ intracultural knowledge and practices: A multiple case study in Canada. In J. Yan, & H. Huang (Eds.), Teacher development in teaching Chinese as a second language (pp. 131–147). Routledge.Li, G., Lin, Z., & Shen, S. (2026) Chinese heritage language teachers’ intracultural knowledge and practices: A multiple case study in Canada. In J. Yan, & H. Huang (Eds.), Teacher development in teaching Chinese as a second language (pp. 131–147). Routledge.; G. Li, et al., in pressLi, G., Shen, S., & Lin, Z. In Press). Chinese heritage language teachers’ intracultural awareness and practices in Canada: A survey study. In E. Protassova et al. Eds. Perspectives on home, heritage, and community language education Uppsala University Press Li, G., Shen, S., & Lin, Z. In Press). Chinese heritage language teachers’ intracultural awareness and practices in Canada: A survey study. In E. Protassova et al. Eds. Perspectives on home, heritage, and community language education Uppsala University Press ), they were often treated as a monolithic homogeneous cultural and linguistic group. Similarly, in dual immersion or Chinese-as-a-foreign/world language programmes, neither intercultural or intracultural differences, along with other identity markers, were addressed in instruction as Chinese teachers often focus on Chinese language teaching as a subject and do not consider students’ identities (i.e., race, ethnicity, or gender) in Chinese teaching (Xu & Valdez, 2024Xu, N., & Valdez, V. E. (2024) “We don’t talk about race in the classroom”: Examining Chinese dual language bilingual education teachers’ raciolinguistic ideologies and literacy pedagogy. Literacy Research: Theory, Method, and Practice, 73 (1), 193–216. Xu, N., & Valdez, V. E. (2024) “We don’t talk about race in the classroom”: Examining Chinese dual language bilingual education teachers’ raciolinguistic ideologies and literacy pedagogy. Literacy Research: Theory, Method, and Practice, 73(1), 193–216. ). As a result, learners in such programmes were found to confront complex ideology and identity struggles regarding Chinese learning. For example, non-mandarin speaking learners often found it hard to fit in and motivated to learn in a Mandarin-dominated class that failed to acknowledge their unique linguistic assets in their dialects (Wu et al., 2014Wu, X., Murry, M., & Yue, W. (2014) Tone assimilation by Mandarin and Thai listeners with and without L2 experience. Journal of Phonetics, 46 , 86–100. Wu, X., Murry, M., & Yue, W. (2014) Tone assimilation by Mandarin and Thai listeners with and without L2 experience. Journal of Phonetics, 46, 86–100. ). As well, race, gender, SES or disability issues were seldom addressed in the curriculum or teaching in these programmes (Kong, 2022Kong, K. (2022) Crossing the river by feeling the stones: Understanding and integrating social justice in Chinese language class. The Modern Language Journal (Boulder, Colo.), 106 (4), 726–743. Kong, K. (2022) Crossing the river by feeling the stones: Understanding and integrating social justice in Chinese language class. The Modern Language Journal (Boulder, Colo.), 106(4), 726–743. ; L. Li, 2024Li, L. (2024) Erasing race and disability from educational policies of a Chinese–English dual language charter school. Teachers College Record (1970), 126 (4–5), 3–30. Li, L. (2024) Erasing race and disability from educational policies of a Chinese–English dual language charter school. Teachers College Record (1970), 126(4–5), 3–30. ; Xu & Valdez, 2024Xu, N., & Valdez, V. E. (2024) “We don’t talk about race in the classroom”: Examining Chinese dual language bilingual education teachers’ raciolinguistic ideologies and literacy pedagogy. Literacy Research: Theory, Method, and Practice, 73 (1), 193–216. Xu, N., & Valdez, V. E. (2024) “We don’t talk about race in the classroom”: Examining Chinese dual language bilingual education teachers’ raciolinguistic ideologies and literacy pedagogy. Literacy Research: Theory, Method, and Practice, 73(1), 193–216. ).

The increasing complexity of superdiversity, as well as the ongoing educational inequitable issues induced by either the COVID-19 pandemic or the continued growth of global mobility, suggested an urgent need to re-examine the practices within Chinese language classrooms at all levels across North America. In this conceptual article, using the dual lenses of DEI and intersectionality, we propose that North American Chinese language classrooms shift pedagogical ideologies from advocating monolingualism (such as Chinese as the sole instructional language or a Mandarin/Simplified Mandarin-dominant approach) to multilingualism in order to celebrate students’ diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. This shift involves addressing individual students’ diverse demands and developmental trajectories in Chinese language learning while integrating DEI discourses to transform the pedagogical practices in response to the superdiverse nature of these classrooms. In the following, we first introduce our conceptualization of DEI, spotlighting the importance of inclusivity, cultural responsiveness, and the integration of diverse linguistic and ethnocultural heritages brought by the new “normal” realities of superdiversity in North American Chinese classrooms in and out of mainstream school systems. We then introduce different approaches to integrate intersectionality-informed DEI concepts into these classrooms. We conclude by outlining the implications of DEI-informed Chinese teacher education and professional development.

Conceptualizing DEI and intersectionality for language education

Although the basic meaning of DEI has been widely accepted and adopted in educational systems worldwide, the conceptualization of this term varies depending on different global and institutional contexts, which leads to different uptakes in diverse classroom settings. In this section, we illuminate the DEI definition based on terminologies in language educational contexts.

Diversity serves as the scaffolding of DEI (Government of Canada, 2019Government of Canada (2019) Dimensions: Equity, diversity and inclusion. Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. http://​www​.nserc​-crsng​.gc​.ca​/NSERC​-CRSNG​/DEI​-DEI​/Dimensions​-Charter​_Dimensions​-Charte​_eng​.aspGovernment of Canada (2019) Dimensions: Equity, diversity and inclusion. Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. http://​www​.nserc​-crsng​.gc​.ca​/NSERC​-CRSNG​/DEI​-DEI​/Dimensions​-Charter​_Dimensions​-Charte​_eng​.asp). It denotes the variety of unique dimensions, identities, qualities, and characteristics (e.g., race, ethnicity, gender, disability, sexual orientation, gender identity, and national origin) that individuals possess, along with other identity factors (e.g., tribe, caste, socioeconomic status, mindsets, and communication styles). It should be noted that, while diversity is rooted in the recognition of differences as human conditions, it is not about “identity-based separation” but rather “an invitation for ethnical relationality across differences” (G. Li & Moram, 2024Li, G., & Moram, L. (2024) Framing and practicing equity, diversity, inclusion and decolonialization in inclusive education systems: Progress, tensions, and ways forward. In P. Downes, G. Li, L. Praag, & S. Lamb (Eds.), Handbook of promoting equity for inclusive systems and societies in education (pp. 19–34). Routledge.Li, G., & Moram, L. (2024) Framing and practicing equity, diversity, inclusion and decolonialization in inclusive education systems: Progress, tensions, and ways forward. In P. Downes, G. Li, L. Praag, & S. Lamb (Eds.), Handbook of promoting equity for inclusive systems and societies in education (pp. 19–34). Routledge., p. 20). Such a reality of superdiversity is ever-growing and gaining complexity in glocal settings, which calls for intersectional approaches to uncover how individuals and groups are positioned within a specific societal context in ways that might advance or disadvantage them (G. Li & Moram, 2024Li, G., & Moram, L. (2024) Framing and practicing equity, diversity, inclusion and decolonialization in inclusive education systems: Progress, tensions, and ways forward. In P. Downes, G. Li, L. Praag, & S. Lamb (Eds.), Handbook of promoting equity for inclusive systems and societies in education (pp. 19–34). Routledge.Li, G., & Moram, L. (2024) Framing and practicing equity, diversity, inclusion and decolonialization in inclusive education systems: Progress, tensions, and ways forward. In P. Downes, G. Li, L. Praag, & S. Lamb (Eds.), Handbook of promoting equity for inclusive systems and societies in education (pp. 19–34). Routledge.). By acknowledging and respecting the wide range of different and intersecting personal, group, or community attributes within language learning classrooms, scholars and educators can rethink language education as a tool of empowerment that helps diverse learners build not only language skills but also social awareness and open-minded attitudes, preparing them for a globalized world where understanding and communications across cultures and languages are essential.

Inclusion refers to the practice of ensuring that all individuals are valued and respected for their contributions and supported equitably in a culturally safe environment (SSHRC, n.d.Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) n.d.). Best practices in equity, diversity, and inclusion in research practice and design. https://​www​.sshrc​-crsh​.gc​.ca​/funding​-financement​/nfrf​-fnfr​/DEI​-eng​.aspxSocial Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) n.d.). Best practices in equity, diversity, and inclusion in research practice and design. https://​www​.sshrc​-crsh​.gc​.ca​/funding​-financement​/nfrf​-fnfr​/DEI​-eng​.aspx). With the goal of building a culture of belonging, it connects to the recognition of diversity, actively welcoming all voices and participation from diverse backgrounds in a given societal context (G. Li & Moram, 2024Li, G., & Moram, L. (2024) Framing and practicing equity, diversity, inclusion and decolonialization in inclusive education systems: Progress, tensions, and ways forward. In P. Downes, G. Li, L. Praag, & S. Lamb (Eds.), Handbook of promoting equity for inclusive systems and societies in education (pp. 19–34). Routledge.Li, G., & Moram, L. (2024) Framing and practicing equity, diversity, inclusion and decolonialization in inclusive education systems: Progress, tensions, and ways forward. In P. Downes, G. Li, L. Praag, & S. Lamb (Eds.), Handbook of promoting equity for inclusive systems and societies in education (pp. 19–34). Routledge.). In the context of language teaching and learning, inclusion means creating an accessible and supportive environment where all students feel empowered to participate in the learning process. For that to happen, teachers need to identify and eliminate barriers, such as language proficiency gaps and cultural misunderstandings, that may hinder students’ engagement by incorporating their unique knowledge and experiences, as well as addressing the socio-emotional or learning needs through positive teacher-student interactions. In addition, for students from immigrant or marginalized groups, the concept of inclusion is also extended to involve their families and communities in their developmental trajectories. This propels academic institutions and teachers to engage families and communities as a supportive educational network to facilitate a holistic learning experience for students.

Equity is an essential piece in the DEI mix as it is the vertex that connects the reality of superdiversity to the goal of inclusion (G. Li & Moram, 2024Li, G., & Moram, L. (2024) Framing and practicing equity, diversity, inclusion and decolonialization in inclusive education systems: Progress, tensions, and ways forward. In P. Downes, G. Li, L. Praag, & S. Lamb (Eds.), Handbook of promoting equity for inclusive systems and societies in education (pp. 19–34). Routledge.Li, G., & Moram, L. (2024) Framing and practicing equity, diversity, inclusion and decolonialization in inclusive education systems: Progress, tensions, and ways forward. In P. Downes, G. Li, L. Praag, & S. Lamb (Eds.), Handbook of promoting equity for inclusive systems and societies in education (pp. 19–34). Routledge.), which highlights the commitment to offering all individuals equal treatment and fair access to information and resources. The goal of equity is to remove systematic barriers such as unconscious bias, discrimination, racism, sexism, and ableism, enabling everyone to have equitable opportunities to benefit from a system. In language education, equity is interpreted as dismantling barriers to learners’ language attainment and development at all levels of academic institutions, so that learners’ diverse needs, backgrounds, and experiences are addressed. Integrating the conception of equity into language education has been evidenced to have profound implications for curriculum design, pedagogical practices, and assessments of students’ language learning outcomes (e.g., Martinez et al., 2022Martinez, M. I., Meadvin, J., Diaz, A., Skibbins, H., Hurwitz, A., & Sapien, C. (2022) Keeping an eye on equity in bilingual education. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 12 (1), 36–47. Martinez, M. I., Meadvin, J., Diaz, A., Skibbins, H., Hurwitz, A., & Sapien, C. (2022) Keeping an eye on equity in bilingual education. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 12(1), 36–47. ; Ortiz et al., 2022Ortiz, A. A., Fránquiz, M. E., & Lara, G. P. (2022) Educational equity for emergent bilinguals: What’s wrong with this picture? Bilingual Research Journal, 45 (1), 1–7. Ortiz, A. A., Fránquiz, M. E., & Lara, G. P. (2022) Educational equity for emergent bilinguals: What’s wrong with this picture? Bilingual Research Journal, 45(1), 1–7. ; Samuels, 2018Samuels, A. J. (2018) Exploring culturally responsive pedagogy: Teachers’ perspectives on fostering equitable and inclusive classrooms. SRATE Journal, 27 (1), 22–30.Samuels, A. J. (2018) Exploring culturally responsive pedagogy: Teachers’ perspectives on fostering equitable and inclusive classrooms. SRATE Journal, 27(1), 22–30.). Teaching language from an equity perspective helps disintegrate the long-standing language ideology of target language privilege in the classroom and values multiple cultural and linguistic assets that multilingual learners bring to the classroom, including their multilingual and multimodal representations and resources.

As educational researchers (Kapilashrami, 2021Kapilashrami, A. (2021, April 22). Embracing intersectionality to interrogate and action equality, diversity, and inclusion in teaching and learning. AdvanceHE. https://​www​.advance​-he​.ac​.uk​/news​-and​-views​/embracing​-intersectionality​-interrogate​-and​-action​-equality​-diversity​-and​-inclusionKapilashrami, A. (2021, April 22). Embracing intersectionality to interrogate and action equality, diversity, and inclusion in teaching and learning. AdvanceHE. https://​www​.advance​-he​.ac​.uk​/news​-and​-views​/embracing​-intersectionality​-interrogate​-and​-action​-equality​-diversity​-and​-inclusion; G. Li, 2021bLi, G. (2021b) Terminating the intersectional harm of triple pandemics for Asians: An educational imperative. Educational Research and Development Journal, 24 (2), 21–28.Li, G. (2021b) Terminating the intersectional harm of triple pandemics for Asians: An educational imperative. Educational Research and Development Journal, 24(2), 21–28.; Qin & G. Li, 2020Qin, K., & Li, G. (2020) Understanding immigrant youths’ negotiation of racialized masculinities in one U.S. high school. Special issue on Gender in Language Education: Critical Cultural Perspectives, Sexuality and Culture, 24 , 1046–1063.Qin, K., & Li, G. (2020) Understanding immigrant youths’ negotiation of racialized masculinities in one U.S. high school. Special issue on Gender in Language Education: Critical Cultural Perspectives, Sexuality and Culture, 24, 1046–1063.) noted, social and education inequities are never a “unitary exclusive phenomenon” of a sole social position and identity maker (e.g., race, class, gender, and disability) but being reciprocally constructed in interactions, or intersections, across different individual characteristics and identity factors. The application of an intersectional lens to DEI work is a key component of understanding the complex systems, barriers, and power structures that impede the development of an equitable, diverse, and inclusive educational ecosystem (Downes et al., 2024Downes, P., Li, G., Praag, L. V., & Lamb, S. (2024) Handbook on promoting equity in education for inclusive systems and societies. New York: Routledge.Downes, P., Li, G., Praag, L. V., & Lamb, S. (2024) Handbook on promoting equity in education for inclusive systems and societies. New York: Routledge.).

An intersectional lens posits that individual identities and social positions such as gender, race, and class intersect and reflect systems of oppression such as sexism and racism (Crenshaw, 1991Crenshaw, K. (1991) Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against woman of color. Stanford Law Review, 43 (6), 1241–1299. Crenshaw, K. (1991) Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against woman of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299. ). Therefore, a person’s different social identities can be subjected to overlapping discrimination or “intersectional harm” (G. Li, 2021bLi, G. (2021b) Terminating the intersectional harm of triple pandemics for Asians: An educational imperative. Educational Research and Development Journal, 24 (2), 21–28.Li, G. (2021b) Terminating the intersectional harm of triple pandemics for Asians: An educational imperative. Educational Research and Development Journal, 24(2), 21–28., p. 22). This intersectional lens thus enables language education researchers and educators to take a holistic view of students by addressing the multifaceted and intersecting nature of identities that influence students’ learning experiences.

Superdiversity in North American Chinese classrooms

Chinese language education in North America is typically implemented to varying extents and through diverse formats both within and outside of mainstream schools. In the mainstream school context, two major types of language programmes are specifically designed for foreign language learning and are accessible to Chinese language learners, namely, foreign/modern/world language programmes with Chinese courses and Chinese immersion or dual language programmes. The former provides students with courses and assessments in Chinese other than official languages, while the latter uses a majority language (such as English) and a minority language of Chinese as content instructional tools (Potowski, 2004Potowski, K. (2004) Student Spanish use and investment in a dual immersion classroom: Implications for second language acquisition and heritage language maintenance. The Modern Language Journal, 88 (1), 75–101. Potowski, K. (2004) Student Spanish use and investment in a dual immersion classroom: Implications for second language acquisition and heritage language maintenance. The Modern Language Journal, 88 (1), 75–101. ). Although these programmes serve an indispensable role in implementing Chinese language education in mainstream K-12 schooling settings, for learners who aim to acquire Chinese as a heritage language (HL), both types have witnessed a deficit in accommodating their unique needs. For example, many schools promise to separate HL learners from second language (L2) learners in foreign/modern/world language programmes to better meet the needs of both groups, but few of them can afford to build an HL track (Beaudrie, 2012Beaudrie, S. (2012) Research on university-based Spanish heritage language programs in the United States: The current state of affairs. In S. Beaudrie, & M. Fairclough (Eds.), Spanish as a heritage language in the United States: The state of the field (pp. 203–221). Georgetown University Press.Beaudrie, S. (2012) Research on university-based Spanish heritage language programs in the United States: The current state of affairs. In S. Beaudrie, & M. Fairclough (Eds.), Spanish as a heritage language in the United States: The state of the field (pp. 203–221). Georgetown University Press.; Carreira, 2014Carreira, M. (2014) Teaching heritage language learners: A study of program profiles, practices, and needs. In A. Themistoklis, & P. Trifonas (Eds.), Rethinking heritage language education (pp. 20–44). Cambridge University Press.Carreira, M. (2014) Teaching heritage language learners: A study of program profiles, practices, and needs. In A. Themistoklis, & P. Trifonas (Eds.), Rethinking heritage language education (pp. 20–44). Cambridge University Press.; G. Li et al., 2025Li, G., Lin, Z., & Shen, S. (2025) Characterizing minority and heritage language education. In P. Romanowski (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multilingual education (pp. 73–98). Cambridge University Press. Li, G., Lin, Z., & Shen, S. (2025) Characterizing minority and heritage language education. In P. Romanowski (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multilingual education (pp. 73–98). Cambridge University Press. ).

More types of Chinese language education can be found in out-of-school contexts, as community contexts are recognized as one of the most vital spaces (only second-to-home contexts) for immigrants to wrestle with the HL loss of their descendants (Lee & Wright, 2014Lee, J. S., & Wright, W. E. (2014) The rDEIscovery of heritage and community language education in the United States. Review of Research in Education, 38 (1), 137–165. Lee, J. S., & Wright, W. E. (2014) The rDEIscovery of heritage and community language education in the United States. Review of Research in Education, 38(1), 137–165. ). Generally, there are three Chinese language education formats outside mainstream schooling, including Chinese heritage/weekend schools, after-school supplementary learning, and online classrooms operated by different Chinese tutoring websites. Specifically, Chinese heritage/weekend schools are run by community forces such as parents, community members, or profit/non-profit organizations, offering language, culture, and other enrichment courses on weekends. After-school supplementary learning/tutoring usually takes place after regular school hours and is viewed as complementary to mainstream Chinese language classes and vital for students with heritage backgrounds in Chinese. Finally, as digital technologies evolve, many online platforms, such as LingoAce, Wukong Chinese, and Koala Know, to some extent, provide expanded learning opportunities for overseas Chinese-heritage students, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic.

North American Chinese language learning classrooms are also marked by a broad spectrum of socio-cultural, linguistic, and ethnic backgrounds among students due to the diverse learning experiences, migration patterns, and histories of Chinese communities, encompassing Chinese heritage (i.e., who come from families where Chinese is the linguistic asset) and non-heritage learners (i.e., whose Chinese learning are often motivated by personal interest, academic requirements, or professional aspirations). Therefore, significant heterogeneity exists in Chinese classrooms stemming from both intercultural and intracultural differences, both impacting how students engage with Chinese language and culture and their learning experiences. Intercultural differences refer to the variations among students from distinct cultural and linguistic backgrounds. For example, in Chinese language classrooms, Chinese HL learners usually possess a different level of familiarity with Chinese than non-heritage learners, and students from a Western culture may have different expectations regarding teacher authority and learning styles compared to students with an East Asian background. Existing among students with Chinese heritage backgrounds, however, are also intracultural differences that add another layer of complexity to the Chinese language classroom environment (G. Li et al., 2026Li, G., Lin, Z., & Shen, S. (2026) Chinese heritage language teachers’ intracultural knowledge and practices: A multiple case study in Canada. In J. Yan, & H. Huang (Eds.), Teacher development in teaching Chinese as a second language (pp. 131–147). Routledge.Li, G., Lin, Z., & Shen, S. (2026) Chinese heritage language teachers’ intracultural knowledge and practices: A multiple case study in Canada. In J. Yan, & H. Huang (Eds.), Teacher development in teaching Chinese as a second language (pp. 131–147). Routledge.; Li, et al., In PressLi, G., Shen, S., & Lin, Z. In Press). Chinese heritage language teachers’ intracultural awareness and practices in Canada: A survey study. In E. Protassova et al. Eds. Perspectives on home, heritage, and community language education Uppsala University Press Li, G., Shen, S., & Lin, Z. In Press). Chinese heritage language teachers’ intracultural awareness and practices in Canada: A survey study. In E. Protassova et al. Eds. Perspectives on home, heritage, and community language education Uppsala University Press ). Since these students, along with their families, may have migrated from different regions of China (and Asia, such as Indonesia and Malaysia), they may speak various Chinese dialects (e.g., Hakka, Cantonese, Shanghainese) and possess unique cultural practices. Such Chinese-heritage students with intracultural differences also differ in either language use or learning needs and outcomes in Chinese (G. Li & Ma, 2016Li, G., & Ma, W. (2016) Understanding “differences within differences” in Chinese-heritage students’ educational experiences across school, home, and community contexts. In W. Ma, & G. Li (Eds.), Chinese-heritage students in North American schools: Understanding hearts and minds beyond test scores (pp.1–8). Routledge.Li, G., & Ma, W. (2016) Understanding “differences within differences” in Chinese-heritage students’ educational experiences across school, home, and community contexts. In W. Ma, & G. Li (Eds.), Chinese-heritage students in North American schools: Understanding hearts and minds beyond test scores (pp.1–8). Routledge.).

In a review article on cultural and linguistic diversity in US K-12 Chinese language education in the mainstream school system that included Chinese immersion and world language programs across the US, Lu and Troyan (2022)Lu, X., & Troyan, F. J. (2022) Diversity and inclusion of culturally and linguistically diverse students in K-12 Chinese language education. Foreign Language Annals, 55 , 684–703. Lu, X., & Troyan, F. J. (2022) Diversity and inclusion of culturally and linguistically diverse students in K-12 Chinese language education. Foreign Language Annals, 55, 684–703. included 13 empirical studies published before 2020. They found that only 7 out of the 13 studies reported students’ demographics data; only 3 noted students’ socioeconomic statuses; one included information on students with disabilities; and one took account of the percentage of English learners. These studies with students’ background data showed vast variations in demographic compositions at the classroom and program levels with different representations of African American, Hispanic, White, Asian, and multiple races. For example, in one study (e.g., Bucknam & Hood, 2020Bucknam, J., & Hood, S. J. (2020) Student language use in a one-way Mandarin immersion classroom. RELCJournal, 52 (1), 1–15. Bucknam, J., & Hood, S. J. (2020) Student language use in a one-way Mandarin immersion classroom. RELCJournal, 52(1), 1–15. ), there were 31% African Americans, 23% Hispanics, 23% multiple races/unspecified, 15% white, and 8% Asian/Pacific Islanders; in another study (e.g., Fortune & Song, 2016Fortune, T. W., & Song, W. (2016) Academic achievement and language proficiency in early total Mandarin immersion education. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education, 4 (2), 168–197. Fortune, T. W., & Song, W. (2016) Academic achievement and language proficiency in early total Mandarin immersion education. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education, 4(2), 168–197. ), one of the schools’ compositions were 0.6% African Americans, 4.5% Hispanics, 68.5% White, 23.2% Asian, and 0.6% American Indian. Of particular note, Asian groups also varied widely, with some programs and classrooms having over 80% Asians and others with less than 8% Asians. Only two studies reported Chinese as a sub-group to distinguish from other Asians. Despite these superdiverse student compositions, Lu and Troyan (2022)Lu, X., & Troyan, F. J. (2022) Diversity and inclusion of culturally and linguistically diverse students in K-12 Chinese language education. Foreign Language Annals, 55 , 684–703. Lu, X., & Troyan, F. J. (2022) Diversity and inclusion of culturally and linguistically diverse students in K-12 Chinese language education. Foreign Language Annals, 55, 684–703. concluded that diversity was examined marginally and in a superficial manner. They stated:

[m]ore than half of the studies examined operationalized cultural and linguistic diversity only in terms of the languages spoken in the classroom while neglecting the fact that both English-speaking and Chinese-speaking groups are highly heterogeneous and may comprise learners from diverse racial and cultural backgrounds who speak different varieties of English or Chinese.(p. 689)

Similarly, superdiversity was also reported in heritage language classrooms. In G. Li et al. (in press)Li, G., Shen, S., & Lin, Z. In Press). Chinese heritage language teachers’ intracultural awareness and practices in Canada: A survey study. In E. Protassova et al. Eds. Perspectives on home, heritage, and community language education Uppsala University Press Li, G., Shen, S., & Lin, Z. In Press). Chinese heritage language teachers’ intracultural awareness and practices in Canada: A survey study. In E. Protassova et al. Eds. Perspectives on home, heritage, and community language education Uppsala University Press , the researchers surveyed 87 heritage language teachers in weekend community schools in British Columbia who reported that their students came from a range of backgrounds: 53% reported having students from Mandarin-speaking areas and 29 Cantonese-speaking areas. Over 70% reported having students born in Canada but speaking Mandarin at home, and 53% have students from Cantonese-speaking households. As well, 39% had students from multiple races, and 11% had students of non-Chinese ethnic groups and communities.

However, despite the superdiversity in these classrooms and programs, research in both the United States and Canada has revealed that Chinese language teachers preferred to use simplified Mandarin as the target language of teaching or employed only English (not dialects or other language varieties) in their instruction. For example, in the Canadian context, 84% of Chinese language teachers (N = 87) in G. Li’s (in press b) mix-method study reported that they would like to use Mandarin and simplified scripts as their target language/literacy format when teaching students with diverse home language backgrounds. Also, 63% of them firmly believed or agreed that teachers should use only Mandarin Chinese to communicate with students in Chinese schools. Similarly, in another study on five Chinese dual-language bilingual education teachers’ pedagogical and languaging practices in Chinese dual immersion schools, Zhou and G. Li (2022)Zhou, W., & Li, G. (2022) Chinese dual-language bilingual education teachers’ pedagogical and languaging practices in American immersion schools. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 43 (6), 569–583. Zhou, W., & Li, G. (2022) Chinese dual-language bilingual education teachers’ pedagogical and languaging practices in American immersion schools. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 43(6), 569–583. found that the target language (Mandarin) served as the primary tool for teachers to deliver content, manage student behaviours, organize classrooms, and facilitate activities with over 94% of their utterances in Mandarin. One 1st-grade teacher used Mandarin 100% of the class time despite the beginner level and superdiverse nature of her classroom. As well, the teachers constantly enforced a target-language-only policy in the classroom, reminding and requiring students to speak Chinese only.

The overwhelming monolingual or target-language-only language ideology in Chinese classrooms can be attributed to several factors, including but not limited to teachers’ relatively homogeneous linguistic backgrounds, as well as their lack of professional preparation and experience in teaching Chinese to superdiverse students (Kong, 2022Kong, K. (2022) Crossing the river by feeling the stones: Understanding and integrating social justice in Chinese language class. The Modern Language Journal (Boulder, Colo.), 106 (4), 726–743. Kong, K. (2022) Crossing the river by feeling the stones: Understanding and integrating social justice in Chinese language class. The Modern Language Journal (Boulder, Colo.), 106(4), 726–743. ; G. Li. et al., in pressLi, G., Shen, S., & Lin, Z. In Press). Chinese heritage language teachers’ intracultural awareness and practices in Canada: A survey study. In E. Protassova et al. Eds. Perspectives on home, heritage, and community language education Uppsala University Press Li, G., Shen, S., & Lin, Z. In Press). Chinese heritage language teachers’ intracultural awareness and practices in Canada: A survey study. In E. Protassova et al. Eds. Perspectives on home, heritage, and community language education Uppsala University Press ; Zhou & G. Li, 2017Zhou, W., & Li, G. (2017) Pedagogical challenges in cross-cultural Chinese language teaching: Perceptions and experience of Chinese immersion teachers in the U.S. In I. Management Association (Ed.), Educational leadership and administration: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 1656–1681). IGI Global Scientific Publishing. Zhou, W., & Li, G. (2017) Pedagogical challenges in cross-cultural Chinese language teaching: Perceptions and experience of Chinese immersion teachers in the U.S. In I. Management Association (Ed.), Educational leadership and administration: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 1656–1681). IGI Global Scientific Publishing. ). Also, program/school policies, which often mandate target language use only, probably directly influence the teachers’ choice to subscribe to the monolingual ideologies, and teachers’ pre- or in-service training emphasizing maximal/only use of target language in classrooms might also have shaped their compliance with program/school policies (Zhou & G. Li, 2022Zhou, W., & Li, G. (2022) Chinese dual-language bilingual education teachers’ pedagogical and languaging practices in American immersion schools. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 43 (6), 569–583. Zhou, W., & Li, G. (2022) Chinese dual-language bilingual education teachers’ pedagogical and languaging practices in American immersion schools. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 43(6), 569–583. ), or immersion in the school policies that promote elite bilingualism as White middle-class properties (L. Li, 2024Li, L. (2024) Erasing race and disability from educational policies of a Chinese–English dual language charter school. Teachers College Record (1970), 126 (4–5), 3–30. Li, L. (2024) Erasing race and disability from educational policies of a Chinese–English dual language charter school. Teachers College Record (1970), 126(4–5), 3–30. ).

Aligned with the homogeneous language ideology and target-language-only practices are monolingualism and monoculturalism in teaching and learning texts and materials. For example, many Chinese HL schools in North America adopt Chinese textbooks that often endorse the dominant Chinese language and culture, covering China-related themes such as (e.g., “中秋之夜 [The Mid-Autumn Festival]”), customs (e.g., “剪纸 [Chinese Paper-cuttings]”), historical stories (e.g., “孔子求教 [Confucius Seeking for Advice]”), and contemporary events such as “升国旗” [Raising Chinese National Flags,” and “杨振宁获奖 [Yang Zhenning Wins an Award]”). These China-relevant only texts and materials reinforce CHL teachers’ preference toward standard simplified Chinese and Mandarin as the only instructional languages, as these materials convey a prevalent standard language ideology in China and a nationalist Chinese identity (Lippi-Green, 2012Lippi-Green, R. (2012) English with an accent: Language, ideology, and discrimination in the United States. Routledge. Lippi-Green, R. (2012) English with an accent: Language, ideology, and discrimination in the United States. Routledge. ) and the standard Mandarin ideology among Chinese diaspora (Zhu & W. Li, 2014Zhu, H., & Li, W. (2014) Geopolitics and the changing hierarchies of the Chinese language: Implications for policy and practice of Chinese language teaching in Britain. The Modern Language Journal, 98 (1), 326–339. Zhu, H., & Li, W. (2014) Geopolitics and the changing hierarchies of the Chinese language: Implications for policy and practice of Chinese language teaching in Britain. The Modern Language Journal, 98(1), 326–339. ), where Mandarin is increasingly considered as more useful and valuable than dialects (Curdt-Christiansen & Wang, 2018Curdt-Christiansen, X. L., & Wang, W. (2018) Parents as agents of multilingual education: Family language planning in China. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 31 (3), 235–254. Curdt-Christiansen, X. L., & Wang, W. (2018) Parents as agents of multilingual education: Family language planning in China. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 31(3), 235–254. ; G. Li & Shen, 2023Li, G., & Shen, S. (2023) Early bidialectal maintenance among Chinese heritage learners in Canada: A family language policy perspective. Researching and Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language, 4 (1), 49–72. Li, G., & Shen, S. (2023) Early bidialectal maintenance among Chinese heritage learners in Canada: A family language policy perspective. Researching and Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language, 4(1), 49–72. ; Yang & Curdt-Christiansen, 2021Yang, H., & Curdt-Christiansen, X. L. (2021) Conflicting linguistic identities: language choices of parents and their children in rural migrant workers’ families. Current Issues in Language Planning, 22 (4), 408–426. Yang, H., & Curdt-Christiansen, X. L. (2021) Conflicting linguistic identities: language choices of parents and their children in rural migrant workers’ families. Current Issues in Language Planning, 22(4), 408–426. ).

The prevailing discourse of nationalist Chinese identity and the hegemony of Mandarin over other language varieties in Chinese diasporas and home countries have resulted in overseas Chinese teachers’ subscription to a narrow conception of cultural relevance and inclined to sustain a China-based, skill-oriented Chinese language teaching that underscores accuracy and precision of character learning, repetitive drill, and memorization of texts (Zhu & W. Li, 2014Zhu, H., & Li, W. (2014) Geopolitics and the changing hierarchies of the Chinese language: Implications for policy and practice of Chinese language teaching in Britain. The Modern Language Journal, 98 (1), 326–339. Zhu, H., & Li, W. (2014) Geopolitics and the changing hierarchies of the Chinese language: Implications for policy and practice of Chinese language teaching in Britain. The Modern Language Journal, 98(1), 326–339. ). For example, one of the teachers described in Sun and G. Li’s (2023b)Sun, Z., & Li, G. (2023b, April 13–16). Community language school teachers’ negotiation of culturally relevant teaching: From a perspective of transnational dispositions [Paper presentation]. The Annual Conference of American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL, United States.Sun, Z., & Li, G. (2023b, April 13–16). Community language school teachers’ negotiation of culturally relevant teaching: From a perspective of transnational dispositions [Paper presentation]. The Annual Conference of American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL, United States. study on Chinese heritage language classrooms, Mrs. Yi, showed a strong belief in teaching “the standard Mandarin competence” by following the principles of traditional Chinese education (e.g., structured and teacher-centred). In addition to rendering legitimacy and authority as a Chinese HL teacher, Mrs. Yi facilitated learning mainly through teacher-fronted instruction of the main text and rote learning tasks such as copying the focal phrases and vocabulary, completing workbooks, reciting The Analects of Confucius, and searching for phrases in ancient Chinese poems. At the end of one class, Mrs. Yi insisted that students recite the Confucius quotes before leaving class, telling them that “If you don’t even know Confucius’ teachings, you’d be too embarrassed to call yourself Chinese” (Sun & G. Li, 2023bSun, Z., & Li, G. (2023b, April 13–16). Community language school teachers’ negotiation of culturally relevant teaching: From a perspective of transnational dispositions [Paper presentation]. The Annual Conference of American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL, United States.Sun, Z., & Li, G. (2023b, April 13–16). Community language school teachers’ negotiation of culturally relevant teaching: From a perspective of transnational dispositions [Paper presentation]. The Annual Conference of American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL, United States., n. p.).

Finally, there is a notable absence of discussions related to other forms of diversity such as racial diversity as well as students with special learning needs. Based on a textual analysis of policy documents in one Chinese-English dual language charter school in the U.S., L. Li (2024)Li, L. (2024) Erasing race and disability from educational policies of a Chinese–English dual language charter school. Teachers College Record (1970), 126 (4–5), 3–30. Li, L. (2024) Erasing race and disability from educational policies of a Chinese–English dual language charter school. Teachers College Record (1970), 126(4–5), 3–30. concluded that there exist textual silences on disability and race by upholding discourses of elite bilingualism and neo-liberalism reproduced by White, nondisabled, middle-class, English-speaking families who control the right to make policy decisions. As a result, emergent bilingual learners with learning disabilities were often denied access to these programs as they were seen as deviant for their racial/ethnic identities and deficient for disability and linguistic status, and their academic and behavioral performance was devalued. In another study on dual immersion Chinese teachers’ raciolinguistic ideologies in the U.S., Xu and Valdez (2024)Xu, N., & Valdez, V. E. (2024) “We don’t talk about race in the classroom”: Examining Chinese dual language bilingual education teachers’ raciolinguistic ideologies and literacy pedagogy. Literacy Research: Theory, Method, and Practice, 73 (1), 193–216. Xu, N., & Valdez, V. E. (2024) “We don’t talk about race in the classroom”: Examining Chinese dual language bilingual education teachers’ raciolinguistic ideologies and literacy pedagogy. Literacy Research: Theory, Method, and Practice, 73(1), 193–216. discovered that the teachers engaged in raciolinguistic profiling of Chinese heritage language speakers as non-native and non-proficient in reading and writing along with students from other racial groups, but held a separate view of language and race, and considered their roles as “primarily teaching a foreign language and culture irrelevant to the larger sociopolitical environment and did not attend to the diversity issues in the classroom” (p. 73).

In sum, the status quo of Chinese language classrooms in North America presented apparent gaps between the heterogeneity of students’ superdiverse demographic backgrounds and learning needs and the homogeneity of teachers’ language ideologies and pedagogical practices. Current Chinese instruction and teaching materials tend to emphasize the learning of China-based Chinese culture and language, while little attention has been given to the cultural and linguistic knowledge which diverse learners bring to the classroom (Lu & Troyan, 2022Lu, X., & Troyan, F. J. (2022) Diversity and inclusion of culturally and linguistically diverse students in K-12 Chinese language education. Foreign Language Annals, 55 , 684–703. Lu, X., & Troyan, F. J. (2022) Diversity and inclusion of culturally and linguistically diverse students in K-12 Chinese language education. Foreign Language Annals, 55, 684–703. ). In fact, research on DEI and social justice issues in Chinese classrooms is scarce (Kong, 2022Kong, K. (2022) Crossing the river by feeling the stones: Understanding and integrating social justice in Chinese language class. The Modern Language Journal (Boulder, Colo.), 106 (4), 726–743. Kong, K. (2022) Crossing the river by feeling the stones: Understanding and integrating social justice in Chinese language class. The Modern Language Journal (Boulder, Colo.), 106(4), 726–743. ; Xu & Valdez, 2024Xu, N., & Valdez, V. E. (2024) “We don’t talk about race in the classroom”: Examining Chinese dual language bilingual education teachers’ raciolinguistic ideologies and literacy pedagogy. Literacy Research: Theory, Method, and Practice, 73 (1), 193–216. Xu, N., & Valdez, V. E. (2024) “We don’t talk about race in the classroom”: Examining Chinese dual language bilingual education teachers’ raciolinguistic ideologies and literacy pedagogy. Literacy Research: Theory, Method, and Practice, 73(1), 193–216. ). Given the inter- and intra-cultural diversity of Chinese language learners, the issue of cultural relevance and inclusion gains urgency in Chinese instructional spaces and demands more policy, institutional, and individual teachers’ efforts to transform Chinese classrooms into more equitable and inclusive environments.

Embracing DEI in the Chinese classrooms: Opportunities and approaches

Embracing DEI in a Chinese language classroom is a different way of thinking about culture, language, and identity in Chinese teaching. It moves beyond just teaching the target surface Chinese language and culture to connect with the “deep culture” (i.e., the unconscious frameworks of meaning, values, norms, and hidden assumptions that we use to interpret our experience) of superdiverse students and their “lived realities” (Shaules, 2007Shaules, J. (2007) Deep culture: The hidden challenges of global living. Multilingual Matters. Shaules, J. (2007) Deep culture: The hidden challenges of global living. Multilingual Matters. , p. 2). Teaching Chinese language must go beyond teaching a subject of study but is integral to the new equity, diversity, and inclusion norms of education. This means Chinese teachers need to attend to not only inter- and intra-cultural differences in their classrooms but also the varied identities that students bring to the classroom.

First, to embrace DEI in Chinese language education, Chinese teachers must affirm diverse languages, cultural and social identities, and individual experiences that students bring to the classroom. To do so, teachers must first develop a knowledge base of their students’ diverse cultures and establish a cultural affirmation stance by constructing a caring culture in the classroom, designing culturally relevant curricula, and attending to cultural congruity in classroom instruction (Alim & Paris, 2017Alim, H. S., & Paris, D. (2017) What is culturally sustaining pedagogy and why does it matter? In D. Paris & H. S. Alim (Eds.), Culturally sustaining pedagogies: Teaching and learning for justice in a changing world (pp. 1–21). Teachers College Press.Alim, H. S., & Paris, D. (2017) What is culturally sustaining pedagogy and why does it matter? In D. Paris & H. S. Alim (Eds.), Culturally sustaining pedagogies: Teaching and learning for justice in a changing world (pp. 1–21). Teachers College Press.; Gay, 2002Gay, G. (2002) Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53 (2), 106–116. Gay, G. (2002) Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2), 106–116. ; 2010Gay, G. (2010) Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). Teachers College. Gay, G. (2010) Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). Teachers College. ; Paris, 2012Paris, D. (2012) Culturally sustaining pedagogy: A needed change in stance, terminology, and practice. Educational Researcher, 41 (3), 93–97. Paris, D. (2012) Culturally sustaining pedagogy: A needed change in stance, terminology, and practice. Educational Researcher, 41(3), 93–97. ). With this affirmative stance, Chinese teachers can fully acknowledge their students’ inter- or intra-cultural and linguistic similarities and distinctions, learning styles, and multiple identities. This acknowledgment enables teachers to actively integrate authentic and multimodal materials that are culturally relevant to students’ personal experiences (funds of knowledge from home) and the family/ethnic community (such as textual, audio, and visual artifacts) they come from into instructional designs and classroom activities. Further, teachers need to engage in ongoing cultural dialogues with students and construct a harmonious multicultural learning environment. Finally, but most importantly, teachers need to become reflective and constantly (re)examine their own biases and analyze how their identities and experiences affect the ways they view, understand, and interact with all students.

Further, embracing the DEI work in Chinese classrooms suggests that Chinese language teachers must also acknowledge the richness and complexity of the Chinese languages and cultures, moving beyond the simplistic, monocultural, and monolingual Mandarin-only mindset. Teachers thus need to be aware of and open to plural languages (including various Chinese dialects), diverse regional traditions, and contemporary cultural expressions associated with Chinese communities and families where their heritage students come from, further initiating classroom activities and interactions by including these linguistic and cultural assets as unique resources (e.g., Chen & Wang, 2023Chen, L., & Wang, D. (2023) Micro language planning in Mandarin-dominated Chinese language education: voices from dialect-background heritage learners in New Zealand. Current Issues in Language Planning, 25 (2), 157–175. Chen, L., & Wang, D. (2023) Micro language planning in Mandarin-dominated Chinese language education: voices from dialect-background heritage learners in New Zealand. Current Issues in Language Planning, 25(2), 157–175. ; Sun & G. Li, 2023aSun, Z., & Li, G. (2023a) Rethinking Chinese heritage language (CHL) teaching in translocal realities: Pedagogical adaptations and missed opportunities to bridge transcultural gaps in Canada. In R. Zaidi, U. Boz, & E. Moreau (Eds.), Transcultural pedagogies for multilingual classrooms: Responding to changing realities in theory and practices (pp. 19–36). Multilingual Matters. Sun, Z., & Li, G. (2023a) Rethinking Chinese heritage language (CHL) teaching in translocal realities: Pedagogical adaptations and missed opportunities to bridge transcultural gaps in Canada. In R. Zaidi, U. Boz, & E. Moreau (Eds.), Transcultural pedagogies for multilingual classrooms: Responding to changing realities in theory and practices (pp. 19–36). Multilingual Matters. ; Wu & Leung, 2020Wu, M. H., & Leung, G. (2020) “It’s not my Chinese”: A teacher and her students disrupting and dismantling conventional notions of ‘Chinese’ through translanguaging in a heritage language classroom. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25 (5), 1811–1824. Wu, M. H., & Leung, G. (2020) “It’s not my Chinese”: A teacher and her students disrupting and dismantling conventional notions of ‘Chinese’ through translanguaging in a heritage language classroom. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(5), 1811–1824. ; Wu & Opstad, 2021Wu, M. H., & Opstad, S. L. (2021) “Changing worlds, changing classrooms”: Satellite children and their teachers in the transnational era. Journal of Multilingual Education Research, 11 (4), 35–57. Wu, M. H., & Opstad, S. L. (2021) “Changing worlds, changing classrooms”: Satellite children and their teachers in the transnational era. Journal of Multilingual Education Research, 11(4), 35–57. ). Moreover, integrating students’ specific linguistic and cultural backgrounds and funds of knowledge as teaching and learning resources can also enhance students’ engagement and participation in Chinese language learning, empowering them to appreciate multiculturalism and multilingualism within and beyond the classroom. One example of attending to the complexities of Chinese languages and cultures was documented in G. Li et al. (2026)Li, G., Lin, Z., & Shen, S. (2026) Chinese heritage language teachers’ intracultural knowledge and practices: A multiple case study in Canada. In J. Yan, & H. Huang (Eds.), Teacher development in teaching Chinese as a second language (pp. 131–147). Routledge.Li, G., Lin, Z., & Shen, S. (2026) Chinese heritage language teachers’ intracultural knowledge and practices: A multiple case study in Canada. In J. Yan, & H. Huang (Eds.), Teacher development in teaching Chinese as a second language (pp. 131–147). Routledge.’s study in which a Chinese HL teacher in Canada (Ms. Luo) was recognizant of subtle intracultural and linguistic differences between her Chinese-heritage students from both Mandarin- and Cantonese-speaking families and decided to use both traditional and simplified Chinese bi-scripts and design Cantonese-Mandarin bilingual instructional materials in her teaching.

Furthermore, Chinese language teachers can create an equitable and inclusive learning environment by re-examining the Mandarin-only policy in the classroom and the related concept of “Chineseness” which is heavily influenced by nationalist Chinese identity and patriotic fervour (Huang, 2018Huang, J. (2018) Discourses of “Chineseness” and superdiversity. In A. Creese, & A. Blackledge (Eds), The Routledge handbook of superdiversity (pp. 181–193). Routledge. Huang, J. (2018) Discourses of “Chineseness” and superdiversity. In A. Creese, & A. Blackledge (Eds), The Routledge handbook of superdiversity (pp. 181–193). Routledge. ). Although the conceptualization of Chineseness, or Chinese culture and identity authenticity, remains ambiguous and contested (e.g., Duff, 2015Duff, P. A. (2015) Transnationalism, multilingualism, and identity. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35 , 57–80. Duff, P. A. (2015) Transnationalism, multilingualism, and identity. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35, 57–80. ; He, 2012He, C. (2012) The ambiguities of Chineseness and the dispute over the “homecoming” of Turandot. Comparative Literatures Studies, 49 (4), 547–564. He, C. (2012) The ambiguities of Chineseness and the dispute over the “homecoming” of Turandot. Comparative Literatures Studies, 49(4), 547–564. ; Zhang, 2023Zhang, W. (2023) Chineseness as method. Global MDEIa and China, 8 (4), 514–518. Zhang, W. (2023) Chineseness as method. Global MDEIa and China, 8(4), 514–518. ), many discourses of ethnic legitimacy, authenticity, and identity (i.e., Chineseness) are often conflated with cultural and linguistic competence in Mandarin and the essentialist association between Mandarin language proficiency and ethnic authenticity of being a Chinese from China. Many Chinese HL teachers with this view of Chineseness thus understand Chinese cultural relevance by over-emphasizing proficiency in the standard, official Chinese language such as Mandarin, with less attention to other Chinese language varieties and regional cultures which students from other countries bring to the classrooms.

One way to counter these Mandarin-only and narrow definitions of Chineseness in Chinese classrooms is to embrace “inclusive translanguaging” practices (G. Li, 2022Li, G. (2022) Toward inclusive translanguaging in multilingual classrooms. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (TESL-EJ), 26 (3), 1–4. Li, G. (2022) Toward inclusive translanguaging in multilingual classrooms. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (TESL-EJ), 26(3), 1–4. ). Translanguaging capitalizes on all languages, cultures, and identities multilingual learners who have historically been marginalized, including their non-dominant dialects and mother tongues. Studies have found that translanguaging, when deployed with critical pedagogy, can serve to disrupt these hegemonic discourses (Chang & Qu, 2021Chang, S., & Qu, Y. (2021) Toward a critical translanguaging pedagogy: An AsianCrit perspective. In A. VandeHei-Carter, N. Villanueva, & C. Clark (Eds.), Foundations of multicultural education series: Multicultural curriculum transformation in literacy and language arts (Vol. 2, pp. 145–163). Lexington Books. Chang, S., & Qu, Y. (2021) Toward a critical translanguaging pedagogy: An AsianCrit perspective. In A. VandeHei-Carter, N. Villanueva, & C. Clark (Eds.), Foundations of multicultural education series: Multicultural curriculum transformation in literacy and language arts (Vol. 2, pp. 145–163). Lexington Books. ). For example, Tian (2022)Tian, Z. (2022) Challenging the “dual”: Designing translanguaging spaces in a Mandarin-English dual language bilingual education program. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 43 (6), 534–553. Tian, Z. (2022) Challenging the “dual”: Designing translanguaging spaces in a Mandarin-English dual language bilingual education program. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 43(6), 534–553. documented a teacher-research collaboration in a third-grade Chinese-English dual immersion class where they employed translanguaging to disrupt traditionally strict language separation policies in dual language bilingual education (DLBE) programs that reflect parallel monolingualism. The study shows that translanguaging (though in named languages such as English and Chinese) allowed students to demonstrate a fuller picture of their academic performance, develop deeper content understandings, build cross-linguistic connections, and become more aware of their bi/multilingual and bi/ multicultural identities.

Similarly, several studies have documented the power of “inclusive translanguaging” (G. Li, 2022Li, G. (2022) Toward inclusive translanguaging in multilingual classrooms. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (TESL-EJ), 26 (3), 1–4. Li, G. (2022) Toward inclusive translanguaging in multilingual classrooms. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (TESL-EJ), 26(3), 1–4. ) that transcends the named languages (English and Chinese) to disrupt conventional Mandarin-only practices in Chinese heritage language classes. In particular, recent studies have examined teachers’ inclusive translanguaging practices that included various Chinese varieties (Jin & Liu, 2023Jin, J., & Liu, Y. (2023) Towards a critical translanguaging biliteracy pedagogy: The “aha moment” stories of two Mandarin Chinese teachers in Canada. Literacy, 57 (2), 171–184. Jin, J., & Liu, Y. (2023) Towards a critical translanguaging biliteracy pedagogy: The “aha moment” stories of two Mandarin Chinese teachers in Canada. Literacy, 57(2), 171–184. ; Wu & Leung, 2020Wu, M. H., & Leung, G. (2020) “It’s not my Chinese”: A teacher and her students disrupting and dismantling conventional notions of ‘Chinese’ through translanguaging in a heritage language classroom. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25 (5), 1811–1824. Wu, M. H., & Leung, G. (2020) “It’s not my Chinese”: A teacher and her students disrupting and dismantling conventional notions of ‘Chinese’ through translanguaging in a heritage language classroom. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(5), 1811–1824. ). For example, Wu and Leung (2020)Wu, M. H., & Leung, G. (2020) “It’s not my Chinese”: A teacher and her students disrupting and dismantling conventional notions of ‘Chinese’ through translanguaging in a heritage language classroom. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25 (5), 1811–1824. Wu, M. H., & Leung, G. (2020) “It’s not my Chinese”: A teacher and her students disrupting and dismantling conventional notions of ‘Chinese’ through translanguaging in a heritage language classroom. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(5), 1811–1824. documented a Chinese teacher’s flexible use of translanguaging including contrast analyses of different Chinese varieties and actively eliciting students’ use of their own home languages in a heritage language class. The class included Fujianese-speaking and Cantonese-speaking students, as well as students from mixed backgrounds (i.e., a combination of Mandarin, Fujianese, Cantonese, Taishanese, Indonesian, or Vietnamese). The study shows that adopting inclusive translanguaging as a pedagogical stance honored multiple varieties within the local language ecology, enhanced students’ experiences of learning Mandarin and/or other Chinese varieties, and empowered students to challenge the hegemonic Mandarin-only discourse and the imposed Mandarin identity. Therefore, by recognizing and valuing students’ entire linguistic and cultural repertoire, including those of minority and marginalized ones, Chinese teachers can use inclusive translanguaging pedagogies to honor all voices, broaden students’ worldviews, and foster inter-/intra-cultural dialogues within a welcoming and inclusive classroom.

Beyond capitalizing on students’ linguistic capital, teachers can also adopt a Community Cultural Wealth framework (Yasso, 2005Yasso, T. J. (2005) Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community cultural wealth. Race Ethnicity and Education, 8 (1), 69–91. Yasso, T. J. (2005) Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community cultural wealth. Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69–91. ) to guide their teaching that goes beyond the attention to students’ cultural and linguistic capital to include other types of assets and strengths that their superdiverse students bring to the classroom, including familial (i.e., funds of knowledge nurtured among families or kin), resistant (knowledge and skills fostered through oppositional behavior that challenges inequality), aspirational (the ability to maintain hopes and dreams for the future, even in the face of real and perceived barriers), navigational (the skills to traverse through social institutions such as schools), and social (i.e., social contacts and community resources) capital. This framework has been found to be particularly effective in challenging teachers’ possible deficit views of superdiverse learners and empowering them to ground their teaching in the realities and strengths of their students’ communities (Cervera, 2018Cervera, O. (2018) A community cultural capital approach: Bilingual teachers’ perceptions and impact in their dual language immersion classroom (Publication No. 11017254) [Doctoral Dissertation, University of South California]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. https://​www​.proquest​.com​/dissertations​-theses​/community​-cultural​-capital​-approach​-bilingual​/docview​/2185904735​/se​-2Cervera, O. (2018) A community cultural capital approach: Bilingual teachers’ perceptions and impact in their dual language immersion classroom (Publication No. 11017254) [Doctoral Dissertation, University of South California]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. https://​www​.proquest​.com​/dissertations​-theses​/community​-cultural​-capital​-approach​-bilingual​/docview​/2185904735​/se​-2; S. Li, 2021Li, S. (2021) Using community cultural wealth as a lens in teacher preparation for cultural and linguistic diversity. TESOL Journal, 13 (3), 1–7. Li, S. (2021) Using community cultural wealth as a lens in teacher preparation for cultural and linguistic diversity. TESOL Journal, 13(3), 1–7. ). S. Li (2021)Li, S. (2021) Using community cultural wealth as a lens in teacher preparation for cultural and linguistic diversity. TESOL Journal, 13 (3), 1–7. Li, S. (2021) Using community cultural wealth as a lens in teacher preparation for cultural and linguistic diversity. TESOL Journal, 13(3), 1–7. provided practical examples of how to apply the community cultural wealth framework in teacher education courses and how it can inform the pre-service teachers’ work with culturally and linguistically diverse students. She introduced two praxis-oriented tasks: a Block Party, which encourages pre-service teachers to deeply engage with and represent one aspect of the framework, and a jigsaw activity, which facilitates knowledge exchange about different aspects of the framework. These activities helped pre-service teachers develop sensitivity to recognize the unique cultural capital of individual students and families while also fostering renewed understanding of cultural norms in schools. Research has also shown that explicit modeling and instruction in schools on the interconnected aspects of community cultural capital, such as aspirational, navigational, and familial capital, by forming linkage to what students know across home and school can provide more opportunities and pathways to academic success in school (DeNicolo et al., 2015DeNicolo, C. P., González, M., Morales, S., & Romaní, L. (2015) Teaching through Testimonio: Accessing community cultural wealth in school. Journal of Latinos and Education, 14 (4), 228–243. DeNicolo, C. P., González, M., Morales, S., & Romaní, L. (2015) Teaching through Testimonio: Accessing community cultural wealth in school. Journal of Latinos and Education, 14(4), 228–243. ). Sun & G. Li’s (2023a)Sun, Z., & Li, G. (2023a) Rethinking Chinese heritage language (CHL) teaching in translocal realities: Pedagogical adaptations and missed opportunities to bridge transcultural gaps in Canada. In R. Zaidi, U. Boz, & E. Moreau (Eds.), Transcultural pedagogies for multilingual classrooms: Responding to changing realities in theory and practices (pp. 19–36). Multilingual Matters. Sun, Z., & Li, G. (2023a) Rethinking Chinese heritage language (CHL) teaching in translocal realities: Pedagogical adaptations and missed opportunities to bridge transcultural gaps in Canada. In R. Zaidi, U. Boz, & E. Moreau (Eds.), Transcultural pedagogies for multilingual classrooms: Responding to changing realities in theory and practices (pp. 19–36). Multilingual Matters. study provides an example of how Chinese language teachers can connect with local community cultural wealth. They documented how a Chinese heritage language teacher, Ms. Tian, integrated an in-class study of Chinatown with a field trip to a local Chinatown, linking authentic community contexts with classroom Chinese language learning. This approach enriched students’ understanding of Chinese cultures and their local and historical communities.

Finally, given the lack of attention to other DEI barriers such as race, gender, and learning disabilities beyond cultural and linguistic diversity, it is necessary for Chinese teachers to adopt Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles in their teaching to address learner variability in learning needs, backgrounds, abilities, and preferences (Fritzgerald, 2020Fritzgerald, A. (2020) Antiracism and universal design for learning: Building expressways to success. CAST Professional Publishing.Fritzgerald, A. (2020) Antiracism and universal design for learning: Building expressways to success. CAST Professional Publishing.; Meyer et al., 2014Meyer, A., Rose, D. H., & Gordon, D. (2014) Universal design for learning: Theory and practice. CAST Professional Publishing.Meyer, A., Rose, D. H., & Gordon, D. (2014) Universal design for learning: Theory and practice. CAST Professional Publishing.; Rao et al., 2023Rao, K., Gravel, J. W., Rose, D. H., & Tucker-Smith, T. N. (2023) Universal design for learning in its 3rd decade: A focus on equity, inclusion, and design. In R. J. Tierney, F. Rizvi, & K. Ercikan (Eds.), International encyclopDEIa of education (4th ed., pp. 712–720). Elsevier Ltd. Rao, K., Gravel, J. W., Rose, D. H., & Tucker-Smith, T. N. (2023) Universal design for learning in its 3rd decade: A focus on equity, inclusion, and design. In R. J. Tierney, F. Rizvi, & K. Ercikan (Eds.), International encyclopDEIa of education (4th ed., pp. 712–720). Elsevier Ltd. ; Scott & Lock, 2021Scott, D., & Lock, J. (Eds.) (2021) Teacher as designer: Designing teaching for educational change. Springer. Scott, D., & Lock, J. (Eds.) (2021) Teacher as designer: Designing teaching for educational change. Springer. ). UDL is a framework for designing accessible and equitable learning environments with effective strategies such as inquiry and differentiation for superdiverse learners. A central tenet of UDL is to identify and reduce barriers to learning, supporting educators to avoid deficit perceptions of learners and their communities by relocating the “problem” from within the individual learner to within the design of the curriculum and teaching that may limit their students’ learning opportunity (Rao et al., 2023Rao, K., Gravel, J. W., Rose, D. H., & Tucker-Smith, T. N. (2023) Universal design for learning in its 3rd decade: A focus on equity, inclusion, and design. In R. J. Tierney, F. Rizvi, & K. Ercikan (Eds.), International encyclopDEIa of education (4th ed., pp. 712–720). Elsevier Ltd. Rao, K., Gravel, J. W., Rose, D. H., & Tucker-Smith, T. N. (2023) Universal design for learning in its 3rd decade: A focus on equity, inclusion, and design. In R. J. Tierney, F. Rizvi, & K. Ercikan (Eds.), International encyclopDEIa of education (4th ed., pp. 712–720). Elsevier Ltd. ). Building on understanding learner variability and reducing barriers in learning design in their classrooms, UDL advocates three key principles in instructional design that include (1) multiple means of engagement where teachers can utilize a range of strategies to engage the interests and maintain motivation of all students, (2) multiple means of representation, where teachers present materials and contents information to accommodate learning variabilities among students, and (3) multiple means of action and expression, where teachers provide multiple ways for students to demonstrate their knowledge and skill acquisition in assessment (Meyer et al., 2014Meyer, A., Rose, D. H., & Gordon, D. (2014) Universal design for learning: Theory and practice. CAST Professional Publishing.Meyer, A., Rose, D. H., & Gordon, D. (2014) Universal design for learning: Theory and practice. CAST Professional Publishing.). Given UDL’s focus on addressing learner variability and diversity, as well as shifting the teacher’s perspective toward refining the learning design to eliminate barriers, it has the potential to mitigate the intersectional harms caused by multiple DEI-related obstacles in Chinese teaching. Though not particularly employing UDL or DEI lens, recent studies on the effectiveness of multimodal teaching or instructional material design on Chinese as a foreign/second/heritage language (e.g., Han et al., 2023Han, J., Liu, Q., & Sun, R. (2023) A multimodal approach to teaching Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) in the digital world. International Journal of Computer-assisted Language Learning and Teaching, 13 (1), 1–16. Han, J., Liu, Q., & Sun, R. (2023) A multimodal approach to teaching Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) in the digital world. International Journal of Computer-assisted Language Learning and Teaching, 13(1), 1–16. ; Pang, 2023Pang, Z. (2023) Designing Chinese as a foreign language for speaking using multimodal teaching. Soft Computing, 27 , 14305–14319. Pang, Z. (2023) Designing Chinese as a foreign language for speaking using multimodal teaching. Soft Computing, 27, 14305–14319. ; Yeh et al., 2018Yeh, Y., Chen, M., & Ho, H. (2018) Design of tablet storybooks adopting a “universal design for learning” approach to assist bilingual learning. In T. Ahram & R. Jang (Eds.), Advances in physical ergonomics and human factors: Part II, AHFE International Conference (pp. 205–214). AHFE Open Access. Yeh, Y., Chen, M., & Ho, H. (2018) Design of tablet storybooks adopting a “universal design for learning” approach to assist bilingual learning. In T. Ahram & R. Jang (Eds.), Advances in physical ergonomics and human factors: Part II, AHFE International Conference (pp. 205–214). AHFE Open Access. ) show promises of UDL in enhancing Chinese language learning while attending to the intersectionality of DEI issues. For example, Yeh and colleagues (2018) reported on a Mandarin-Vietnamese bilingual tablet storybook designed using the UDL approach. By presenting Mandarin and Vietnamese in multiple forms — visual (e.g., illustrations and animations), auditory (e.g., sounds and pronunciations), and tactile (e.g., screen-touch and draggable words/objects) — and fostering self-directed learning through a user-oriented design, the storybook facilitated active learning, enhanced engagement among Mandarin and Vietnamese heritage language learners, and ultimately promoted their heritage language skills.

In summary, there are a plethora of opportunities and approaches that Chinese teachers can employ to embrace DEI work in their classrooms. To establish an equitable and inclusive classroom where all students’ needs and diversity can be addressed, Chinese teachers must attend to the following instructional principles:

1. Establish a knowledge base of the students and the curriculum. Chinese language teachers should have sufficient knowledge of students’ superdiverse backgrounds (e.g., linguistic repertoire, cultural assets and values, and learning experiences and styles) and unique needs in Chinese language and literacy development, with both holistic and nuanced understanding of intercultural and intracultural differences among students as well as the barriers in the curriculum that impede learning.

2. Acquire a repertoire of instructional strategies that engage superdiverse learners. Teachers need to differentiate instructions to students of different individual, linguistic, or cultural characteristics, simultaneously employing alternative DEI-empowered pedagogical approaches and patterns to support their students in achieving learning goals in Chinese language acquisition.

3. (Re)design curriculum with DEI intentions. Teachers should design Chinese language curricula with the goal of incorporating the DEI work into their teaching practices by (a) carefully selecting themes and topics that resonate with students’ diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds, (b) incorporating culturally relevant and contemporary issues alongside rigid content in textbooks to ensure students’ lived experiences to be reflected in instructional materials, (c) adopting flexible and adaptable patterns of instruction delivery through using a variety of instructional methods such as project-based learning, collaborative activities, and digital integration to cater to students’ different learning styles and needs, and (d) valuing and using students’ funds of knowledge and community cultural wealth as teaching resources to better engage students in Chinese language learning.

4. Seek school/program-wide collaboration if possible. Successful language education cannot be divorced from collaboration with local teacher partners and parents. Non-Chinese language teachers may have unique insights into the local educational landscape and cultural context, while parents are essential for reinforcing Chinese learning and maintenance outside the classroom. Increasing collaborations with fellow teachers (and/or parents), such as co-planning lessons and sharing pedagogical strategies and materials, can help teachers implement the DEI principles effectively in their classrooms.

Making DEI an integral part of Chinese education: Implications for teacher learning

It is clear that there are many ways to make DEI an integral part of Chinese language teaching in North American classrooms. To help more Chinese teachers confidently address DEI issues in and through their teaching, there is a need for intentional teacher development in awareness-raising and strategy learning and adoption. Like all other teachers who are policy and pedagogy enactors at the front line, Chinese language teachers’ agency in adopting DEI or social justice-related teaching practices is often shaped by a range of personal (e.g., comfort level), professional (knowledge background, training and teaching experiences, and curriculum), and contextual factors (local school policies and support, or broader political culture) (Kong, 2022Kong, K. (2022) Crossing the river by feeling the stones: Understanding and integrating social justice in Chinese language class. The Modern Language Journal (Boulder, Colo.), 106 (4), 726–743. Kong, K. (2022) Crossing the river by feeling the stones: Understanding and integrating social justice in Chinese language class. The Modern Language Journal (Boulder, Colo.), 106(4), 726–743. ; Zhou & G. Li, 2017Zhou, W., & Li, G. (2017) Pedagogical challenges in cross-cultural Chinese language teaching: Perceptions and experience of Chinese immersion teachers in the U.S. In I. Management Association (Ed.), Educational leadership and administration: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 1656–1681). IGI Global Scientific Publishing. Zhou, W., & Li, G. (2017) Pedagogical challenges in cross-cultural Chinese language teaching: Perceptions and experience of Chinese immersion teachers in the U.S. In I. Management Association (Ed.), Educational leadership and administration: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 1656–1681). IGI Global Scientific Publishing. ). Chinese teachers teaching overseas navigate a range of complexities, such as bridging gaps between their understanding of students’ inter- and intra-cultural differences and their pedagogical practices, enhancing their bilingual/multilingual and cultural proficiency to foster effective communication with local teachers and parents, and deepening their knowledge of localized educational ideologies, policies, and systems (Kong, 2022Kong, K. (2022) Crossing the river by feeling the stones: Understanding and integrating social justice in Chinese language class. The Modern Language Journal (Boulder, Colo.), 106 (4), 726–743. Kong, K. (2022) Crossing the river by feeling the stones: Understanding and integrating social justice in Chinese language class. The Modern Language Journal (Boulder, Colo.), 106(4), 726–743. ; Zhou & G. Li, 2017Zhou, W., & Li, G. (2017) Pedagogical challenges in cross-cultural Chinese language teaching: Perceptions and experience of Chinese immersion teachers in the U.S. In I. Management Association (Ed.), Educational leadership and administration: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 1656–1681). IGI Global Scientific Publishing. Zhou, W., & Li, G. (2017) Pedagogical challenges in cross-cultural Chinese language teaching: Perceptions and experience of Chinese immersion teachers in the U.S. In I. Management Association (Ed.), Educational leadership and administration: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 1656–1681). IGI Global Scientific Publishing. ). These challenging complexities demonstrate that Chinese language teachers are in urgent need of professional development that is practical, targeted, and grounded in the contexts of Chinese teachers’ personal and professional realities to move towards DEI-informed Chinese teaching.

First, it is crucial to understand teachers’ perspectives and values regarding multiculturalism and plurilingualism and to engage with them at their current level of awareness to foster critical reflection on the dominance of monolingual and standard-language-only practices in education and society. As documented in research, Chinese teachers often see Chinese teaching as irrelevant to DEI issues and are often unfamiliar with DEI barriers confronting their students due to their cultural and professional backgrounds in another educational system. Ongoing professional development to expose teachers to these issues and barriers through connected interdisciplinary discussions in their PD workshops or teacher education courses (Kong, 2022Kong, K. (2022) Crossing the river by feeling the stones: Understanding and integrating social justice in Chinese language class. The Modern Language Journal (Boulder, Colo.), 106 (4), 726–743. Kong, K. (2022) Crossing the river by feeling the stones: Understanding and integrating social justice in Chinese language class. The Modern Language Journal (Boulder, Colo.), 106(4), 726–743. ). As well, online modules readily available to teachers can be provided to engage teachers in critical reflective dialogues with their peers to support teachers to engage in ongoing, intentional self-interrogation of teaching assumptions (Brookfield, 2017Brookfield, S. D. (2017) Becoming a critically reflective teacher. Jossey-Bass.Brookfield, S. D. (2017) Becoming a critically reflective teacher. Jossey-Bass.) and develop a critical awareness to be able to look at their practices differently from an intersectional DEI lens, think about their alternative approaches and strategies, and act on possible solutions in integrating DEI issues in their teaching and curriculum (see G. Li & Bian, 2024Li, G., & Bian, Y. (2024) Creating a dialogic online space for preparing critically reflective TESOL professionals. In F. Karam & A. Kibler (Eds.), Critical dialogic TESOL teacher education: Preparing future advocates and supporters of multilingual learners (pp. 183–204). Routledge. Li, G., & Bian, Y. (2024) Creating a dialogic online space for preparing critically reflective TESOL professionals. In F. Karam & A. Kibler (Eds.), Critical dialogic TESOL teacher education: Preparing future advocates and supporters of multilingual learners (pp. 183–204). Routledge. , for an example of such module development).

At the same time, teachers also need sustained professional training in identifying and successfully using students’ diverse backgrounds and funds of knowledge as teaching resources and pedagogical strategies such as “inclusive translanguaging” (G. Li, 2022Li, G. (2022) Toward inclusive translanguaging in multilingual classrooms. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (TESL-EJ), 26 (3), 1–4. Li, G. (2022) Toward inclusive translanguaging in multilingual classrooms. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (TESL-EJ), 26(3), 1–4. ) in Chinese language instructions. One challenge that Chinese language teachers most frequently encounter is related to curriculum development and design (Zhou & G. Li, 2017Zhou, W., & Li, G. (2017) Pedagogical challenges in cross-cultural Chinese language teaching: Perceptions and experience of Chinese immersion teachers in the U.S. In I. Management Association (Ed.), Educational leadership and administration: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 1656–1681). IGI Global Scientific Publishing. Zhou, W., & Li, G. (2017) Pedagogical challenges in cross-cultural Chinese language teaching: Perceptions and experience of Chinese immersion teachers in the U.S. In I. Management Association (Ed.), Educational leadership and administration: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 1656–1681). IGI Global Scientific Publishing. ). With limited opportunities for transnational and cross-cultural teaching experience, as well as developing knowledge about students’ superdiversity and local contexts, teachers often navigate the complex task of designing Chinese language curricula that effectively accommodate linguistically and culturally diverse students’ learning needs and interests while aligning with local educational standards, institutional policies, and sociocultural contexts. It might also be difficult to design and integrate culturally relevant materials and resources that resonate with students’ various ethnic, linguistic, and cultural backgrounds while also accurately representing diverse Chinese cultures. Further, students in one classroom might have different Chinese proficiency levels, which sometimes requires a relatively flexible curriculum design that enables teachers to differentiate instructions and adjust the content sometimes. Moreover, shaped by Confucian ideologies and cultures, many Chinese language teachers may prefer a direct knowledge transmission approach with more structured, teacher-centered instruction (Ma & Luke, 2014Ma, W., & Luke, A. (2014) East meets West in teacher preparation: Crossing Chinese and American borders. Teachers College Press.Ma, W., & Luke, A. (2014) East meets West in teacher preparation: Crossing Chinese and American borders. Teachers College Press.), which may be foreign to North American students, including Chinese heritage students who are used to more interactive and student-centered learning. In this context, teachers who were educated and trained in more structured, traditional educational systems may encounter challenges in adopting varied pedagogical techniques to enhance student participation and engagement.

Further, varying expectations regarding behaviour, communication styles, and authority might lead to misunderstandings and conflicts in culturally diverse classrooms, contributing to differences in management strategies. These may arise from different cultural values (collectivism vs. individualism) and divergent educational philosophies and ideologies (hierarchical vs. egalitarian) between China and North American countries. Chinese language teachers need to be sensitive to these differences while establishing norms and expectations that facilitate a respectful and productive learning environment. Furthermore, managing varying levels of proficiency among students can complicate lesson delivery and classroom dynamics, requiring teachers to navigate various strategies to accommodate all learners effectively.

Therefore, professional training for Chinese teachers may concentrate on not only introducing a variety of instructional strategies tailored to meet the needs of superdiverse Chinese language learners but also equipping teachers with significant theoretical works such as culturally relevant/sustaining teaching (Alim & Paris, 2017Alim, H. S., & Paris, D. (2017) What is culturally sustaining pedagogy and why does it matter? In D. Paris & H. S. Alim (Eds.), Culturally sustaining pedagogies: Teaching and learning for justice in a changing world (pp. 1–21). Teachers College Press.Alim, H. S., & Paris, D. (2017) What is culturally sustaining pedagogy and why does it matter? In D. Paris & H. S. Alim (Eds.), Culturally sustaining pedagogies: Teaching and learning for justice in a changing world (pp. 1–21). Teachers College Press.; Gay, 2002Gay, G. (2002) Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53 (2), 106–116. Gay, G. (2002) Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2), 106–116. ; 2010Gay, G. (2010) Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). Teachers College. Gay, G. (2010) Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). Teachers College. ; Paris, 2012Paris, D. (2012) Culturally sustaining pedagogy: A needed change in stance, terminology, and practice. Educational Researcher, 41 (3), 93–97. Paris, D. (2012) Culturally sustaining pedagogy: A needed change in stance, terminology, and practice. Educational Researcher, 41(3), 93–97. ), UDL (Fritzgerald, 2020Fritzgerald, A. (2020) Antiracism and universal design for learning: Building expressways to success. CAST Professional Publishing.Fritzgerald, A. (2020) Antiracism and universal design for learning: Building expressways to success. CAST Professional Publishing.; Meyer et al., 2014Meyer, A., Rose, D. H., & Gordon, D. (2014) Universal design for learning: Theory and practice. CAST Professional Publishing.Meyer, A., Rose, D. H., & Gordon, D. (2014) Universal design for learning: Theory and practice. CAST Professional Publishing.; Rao et al., 2023Rao, K., Gravel, J. W., Rose, D. H., & Tucker-Smith, T. N. (2023) Universal design for learning in its 3rd decade: A focus on equity, inclusion, and design. In R. J. Tierney, F. Rizvi, & K. Ercikan (Eds.), International encyclopDEIa of education (4th ed., pp. 712–720). Elsevier Ltd. Rao, K., Gravel, J. W., Rose, D. H., & Tucker-Smith, T. N. (2023) Universal design for learning in its 3rd decade: A focus on equity, inclusion, and design. In R. J. Tierney, F. Rizvi, & K. Ercikan (Eds.), International encyclopDEIa of education (4th ed., pp. 712–720). Elsevier Ltd. ; Scott & Lock, 2021Scott, D., & Lock, J. (Eds.) (2021) Teacher as designer: Designing teaching for educational change. Springer. Scott, D., & Lock, J. (Eds.) (2021) Teacher as designer: Designing teaching for educational change. Springer. ), and concepts intersecting with language education, such as DEI (G. Li & Moram, 2024Li, G., & Moram, L. (2024) Framing and practicing equity, diversity, inclusion and decolonialization in inclusive education systems: Progress, tensions, and ways forward. In P. Downes, G. Li, L. Praag, & S. Lamb (Eds.), Handbook of promoting equity for inclusive systems and societies in education (pp. 19–34). Routledge.Li, G., & Moram, L. (2024) Framing and practicing equity, diversity, inclusion and decolonialization in inclusive education systems: Progress, tensions, and ways forward. In P. Downes, G. Li, L. Praag, & S. Lamb (Eds.), Handbook of promoting equity for inclusive systems and societies in education (pp. 19–34). Routledge.; Qin & G. Li, 2026Qin, K., & Li, G. (2026) Antiracist teacher education for multilingual learners: Praxis, challenges, and future directions. In H. Hong & A. C. Da Silva Iddings (Eds.), Empowering Multilingual Learners: Innovative Approaches to Foster Equity and Inclusivity in Teacher Education (pp. 146–162). Routledge.Qin, K., & Li, G. (2026) Antiracist teacher education for multilingual learners: Praxis, challenges, and future directions. In H. Hong & A. C. Da Silva Iddings (Eds.), Empowering Multilingual Learners: Innovative Approaches to Foster Equity and Inclusivity in Teacher Education (pp. 146–162). Routledge.), that might help frame their pedagogies and practices to better meet the needs of their superdiverse students. Such professional support can also focus on familiarizing teachers with local educational policies and ideologies by facilitating collaborative networks that enhance experience and knowledge exchange (e.g., classroom observations, peer feedback, thematic discussions) between other disciplinary teachers and teaching partners in similar societal contexts. According to UNESCO (2014)UNESCO (2014) Teaching and learning: Achieving quality for all. UNESCO Publishing. UNESCO (2014) Teaching and learning: Achieving quality for all. UNESCO Publishing. , high-quality education depends on giving teachers the best possible training “not only before they start teaching but also throughout their careers” (p. 236). Teacher education institutions and programs need to provide sustained, ongoing education and training for teachers and teacher candidates to better prepare them for teaching the Chinese language to superdiverse student groups in various contexts.