Feminism and language

Karin Milles
Södertörn University
Table of contents

This entry aims at describing the relationship between language and feminism, which is a complex and multifaceted one. Like all political movements, the feminist movement and its advocates have been using language to promote feminist interests. Feminists have been delivering speeches, founding magazines, using slogans, and producing theoretical concepts to understand the nature of the oppression of women, among many other things. But unlike most political movements, the feminist movement has also identified language as one of its main challenges, pinpointing its active part in the oppression of women and making the struggle for equality, empowerment, and liberation harder. The critique has had two major themes: verbal degradation, and the silencing of women. This has made sexist language, e.g., gendered structures in the grammar and vocabulary of language, and ideologically motivated sex differences in linguistic practice such as the ban on female public speaking the focus of the critique.

Full-text access is restricted to subscribers. Log in to obtain additional credentials. For subscription information see Subscription & Price.

References

#Guytalk
N.d., MakeEqual. Retrieved from: http://​www​.killmiddag​.se​/index​_eng​.html. [2019-10-22]
Agyepong, Dorothy Pokua and Grace Diabah
2021 “ ‘Next time stay in your war room and pray for your boys’ or return to your kitchen: Sexist discourses in Ghana’s 2019 National Science and Math Quiz.” Discourse & Society 32 (3): 267–291. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ahmed, Sara
2017 Living a Feminist Life. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Alingasa, Aniceta P. T. and Mira A. P. Ofreneo
2020 “ ‘Fearless, powerful, Filipino’: Identity positioning in the hashtag activism of #BabaeAko.” Feminist Media Studies: 1–17.Google Scholar
Anderson, Eric
2009 Inclusive Masculinities. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Atkins-Sayre, Wendy
2005 “Naming women: The emergence of ‘Ms.’ as a liberatory title.” Women and Language 28 (1): 8–16.Google Scholar
Austin, John. L.
1962 How to Do Things with Words. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bengoechea, Mercedes
2011 “Non-sexist Spanish policies: An attempt bound to fail?” Current Issues in Language Planning 12 (1): 35–53. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Benhabib, Seyla
1992 Situating the Self: Gender, Community and Postmodernism in Contemporary Ethics. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Blaubergs, Maija S.
1980 “An analysis of classic arguments against changing sexist language.” Women’s Studies International Quarterly 3: 135–147. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Braun, Virginia and Celia Kitzinger
2001 “Telling it straight? Dictionary definitions of women’s genitals.” Journal of Sociolinguistics 5 (2): 214–232. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Braun, Friederike, Sabine Sczesny and Dagmar Stahlberg
2005 “Cognitive effects of masculine generics in German: An overview of empirical findings.” Communications 30 (1): 1–21. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bridges, Judith
2017 “Gendering metapragmatics in online discourse: ‘Mansplaining man gonna mansplain …’” Discourse, Context & Media 20: 94–102. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Borba, Rodrigo
2019 “Gendered politics of enmity: Language ideologies and social polarisation in Brazil.” Gender and Language, 13 (4): 423–448. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Boroditsky, Lera, Lauren A. Schmidt and Webb Phillips
2003 “Sex, syntax, and semantics.” In Language in Mind: Advances in the Study of Language and Thought, ed. by Deirdre Gentner and Susan Goldin-Meadow, 61–79. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Butler, Judith
1990 Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York & London: Routledge.Google Scholar
1997 Excitable Speech: a politics of the performative. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
2011 Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of ‘Sex’. London: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cameron, Deborah
1985/1994 Feminism and Linguistic Theory. London: Macmillan. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(ed.) 1985 The Feminist Critique of Language. A Reader. London & New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
1992a Feminism and Linguistic Theory. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1992b “Naming of parts: Gender, culture, and terms for the penis among American college students.” American Speech 67 (4): 367–382. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1995 Verbal Hygiene. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
2004 “Out of the bottle: the social life of metalanguage.” In Metalanguage: social and ideological perspectives, ed. by Adam Jaworski, Nikolas Coupland & Dariusz Galasiński, 311–326. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cameron, Deborah and Don Kulick
2003 Language and Sexuality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cavarero, Adriana
1995 In Spite of Plato. A Feminist Rewriting of Ancient Philosophy. London: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Chen, Jenn-Yeu & Su, Jui-Ju
2011 “Differential sensitivity to the gender of a person by English and Chinese speakers.” Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 40: 195–203. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chicago Women’s Liberation Institution
1971 “How to start your own consciousness-raising group.” Retrieved from: https:/​/web​.archive​.org​/web​/20040212200503​/http://​www​.cwluherstory​.com​/CWLUArchive​/crcwlu​.html. [2021-04-07]
Cixous, Hélène
1976 “The Laugh of the Medusa”. Signs 1 (4): 875–893. [Originally published as “Le Rire de la Méduse”. 1975. L’Arc: 39–45.] DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Coady, Ann
2018 “The origin of sexism in language.” Gender and Language 12 (3): 271–293. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cooper, Robert L.
1996 Language Planning and Social Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cossman, Brenda
2018 “Gender identity, gender pronouns, and freedom of expression: Bill C-16 and the traction of specious legal claims.” University of Toronto Law Journal 68 (1): 37–79. Retrieved from: DOI logo. [2021-06-28]Google Scholar
Council of Europe
1990 Recommendation No. R (90) 4 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on the Elimination of Sexism from Language. Retrieved from: https://​rm​.coe​.int​/1680505480. [2021-06-30]
Dahlen, Sara
2021 “Do we need the word ‘woman’ in healthcare?” Postgraduate Medical Journal: 1–2. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Daly, Mary
1979/1990 Gyn/ecology: The metaethics of radical feminism. London: Women’s Press.Google Scholar
Delap, Lucy
2020 Feminisms. A Global History. London: Pelican. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Diabah, Grace
2020 “A Battle for Supremacy? Masculinities in Students’ Profane Language Use.” Journal of Men’s Studies 28 (3): 260–280. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
DiCenzo, Maria, Lucy Delap and Leila Ryan
2011 Feminist Media History. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ehrlich, Susan
2001 Representing Rape. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ehrlich, Susan and Ruth King
1992 “Gender-based language reform and the social construction of meaning.” Discourse and Society 3 (2): 151–66. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
European Parliament
2018 Gender-neutral Language in the European Parliament. Retrieved from: https://​www​.europarl​.europa​.eu​/cmsdata​/151780​/GNL​_Guidelines​_EN​.pdf. [2021-06-30]
Fadnis, Deepa
2017 “Feminist activists protest tax on sanitary pads: Attempts to normalize conversations about menstruation in India using hashtag activism”. Feminist Media Studies: 1111–1114. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Galinsky, Adam D., Kurt Hugenberg, Carla Groom and Garla V. Bodenhausen
2003 “The reappropriation of stigmatizing labels: Implications for social identity.” In Research on managing groups and teams, ed. by Jeffrey T. Polzer, 221–256. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing.Google Scholar
Gaucher, Danielle, Justin Friesen and Aaron C. Kay
2011 “Evidence that gendered wording in job advertisements exists and sustains gender inequality.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 101 (1): 109–128. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gender and Language
Equinox Publishers. URL: https://​journals​.equinoxpub​.com​/GL​/index
Grice, Paul
1975 “Logic and conversation.” In Syntax and semantics 3, ed. by Peter Cole and Jerry L. Morgan, 41–58. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Guðmundsdóttir, Lilja
2021 “Viðhorf Íslendinga til kynhlutlausrar orðanotkunar.” [Icelanders’ attitudes towards gender-neutral language.] Final project for the BA-degree in sociology. Iceland: Háskóli Íslands. Retrieved from: https://​skemman​.is​/bitstream​/1946​/38407​/1​/BA%20Ritger%c3%b0​_Lilja%20Gu%c3%b0mundsd%c3%b3ttir​.pdf. [2021-06-30]
Hall, Kira, Rodrigo Borba and Mie Hiramoto
2021 “Relocating power: The feminist potency of language, gender and sexuality research”. Gender and Language 15 (1): 1–10. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hansson, Karin, Malin Sveningsson, Hillevi Ganetz and Maria Sandgren
2020 “Legitimising a feminist agenda: The #metoo petitions in Sweden 2017–2018.” Nordic Journal of Media Studies 2: 121–132. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Haraway, Donna
1991 Simians, cyborgs, and women. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Hedrick, Elizabeth
2013 “The Early Career of Mary Daly: A Retrospective.” Feminist Studies 39 (2): 457–483. Retrieved from: https://​www​.jstor​.org​/stable​/23719057 [2021-06-28]
Hellinger, Marlis and Hadumod Bussmann
(eds.) 2001–2003 Gender across Languages: The Linguistic Representation of Women and Men. Volumes 1–3. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logo. DOI logo. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Henry, Astrid
2004 Not my mother’s sister: Generational conflict and third-wave feminism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
He-Yin, Zhen
1907/2013 “On the Revenge of Women.” In Birth of Chinese Feminism, ed. by Lydia He Liu, Rebecca E. Karl and Dorothy Ko, 105–168. New York: Columbia University Press. [Originally published in Tianyi, no. 1, 1907, 1–7.]Google Scholar
1907/2020 The Feminist Manifesto. Pattern Books. [Originally published in Tianyi, no 1, 1907, 1–7.]Google Scholar
Hjorth Miltersen, Ehm
2016 “Nounself pronouns: 3rd person personal pronouns as identity expression.” Language Works 1 (1): 37–62.Google Scholar
Hooks, Bell
1989 Talking Back. Thinking Feminist, Thinking Black. Boston, Massachusetts: South End Press.Google Scholar
Horvath, Lisa Kristina and Sabine Sczesny
2016 “Reducing women’s lack of fit with leadership positions? Effects of the wording of job advertisements.” European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 25 (2): 316–328. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Larrondo Ureta, Ainaro and Julen Orbegozo Terradillos
2021 “Hashtivism’s potentials for mainstreaming feminism in politics: The Red Lips Revolution transmedia narrative.” Feminist Media Studies: 1–24. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Plate, Liedeke
2011 Transforming memories in contemporary women’s rewriting. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lischinsky, Anon
2018 “Doing the naughty or having it done to you? Agent roles in erotic writing.” Porn Studies 5 (2): 156–174. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Irigaray, Luce
1990 “Women’s exile. Interview with Luce Irigaray.” In The Feminist Critique of Language. A Reader, ed. by Deborah Cameron, 80–96. London and New York: Routledge. [Orignally published in 1977.]Google Scholar
Jaworski, Adam, Nikolas Coupland and Dariusz Galasiński
(eds.) 2004 Metalanguage: Social and ideological perspectives. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
John Benjamins Publishers
Nd. Scope of Journal of Language and Sexuality. Retrieved from https://​benjamins​.com​/catalog​/jls. [2021-04-06]
Kaplan, Robert
2013 “Language planning.” Applied Research on English Language 2 (1): 1–12.Google Scholar
King, Brian W.
2016 “Becoming the intelligible other: Speaking intersex bodies against the grain.” Critical Discourse Studies, 13 (4): 359–378. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kinney, Alison
2017 “Your Global Mansplaining Dictionary in 34 Languages. A handy crowdsourced linguist guide to a universal blight.” The Establishment. Retrieved from: https://​theestablishment​.co​/your​-global​-mansplaining​-dictionary​-in​-34​-languages​-a5e44bf682ba​-2​/index​.html. [2019-09-05]
Komisaruk, Barry R., Carlos Beyer-Flores and Beverly Whipple
2006 The Science of Orgasm. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Kramarae, Cheris and Paula A. Treichler
1985 A Feminist Dictionary. Boston, Massachusetts: Pandora Press.Google Scholar
Lakoff, Robin
1975 Language and Woman’s Place. New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
LaScotte, Darren K.
2021 “Nonnative English learners’ use and understanding of singular they .” Language Awareness 30 (1): 85–95. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lorde, Audre
1984 Sister Outsider. Essays and Speeches. Trumansburg, New York: Crossing Press.Google Scholar
Lykke, Nina, Anne Brewster, Anne Davis, Redi Koobak, Sissel Lie and Andrea Petö
2014 Writing Academic Texts Differently: Intersectional Feminist Methodologies and the Playful Art of Writing. London: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lykke, Nina
2014 “The Choreography of Writing an Introduction.” In Writing Academic Texts Differently: Intersectional Feminist Methodologies and the Playful Art of Writing, ed. by Nina Lykke, Anne Brewster, Anne Davis, Redi Koobak, Sissel Lie & Andrea Petö, 142–160. London: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lie, Sissel
2014 “From an Empty Head to a Finished Text: The Writing Process.” In Writing Academic Texts Differently: Intersectional Feminist Methodologies and the Playful Art of Writing, ed. by Nina Lykke, Anne Brewster, Anne Davis, Redi Koobak, Sissel Lie & Andrea Petö, 126–141. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Lobin, Henry
2021 Sprachkampf. Wie die Neue Rechte die deutsche Sprache Instumentalisiert. [Language struggle. How the New Right instrumentalizes the German language.] Mannheim: Dudenverlag.Google Scholar
MacLeod, Nicci
2020 “The discourse of (re)exploitation. Female victims in the legal system.” In Innovations and Challenges. Women, Language and Sexism, ed. by Carmen Rosa Caldas-Coulthard, 157–175. London: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Matossian, Lou Ann
1987 “A Woman-Made Language: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Herland.” Women and Language, 10 (2), 1–7.Google Scholar
Marichal, Jose
2013 “Political Facebook-groups: Micro-activism and the digital front stage.” First Monday 18 (12) https://​firstmonday​.org​/ojs​/index​.php​/fm​/article​/view​/4653​/3800. doi:  DOI logo. [2019-02-21]
Milles, Karin
2008 Jämställt språk [Gender-equal Language]. Stockholm: Norstedts Akademiska Förlag.Google Scholar
2011a “Feminist language planning in Sweden.” Current Issues in Language Planning 12 (1): 21–33. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2011b “Snippa – a success story of feminist language planning.” Gender & Language 5 (1): 89–109. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2013 “En öppning i en sluten ordklass – den nya användningen av pronomenet hen .” [An opening in a closed word class – the new use of the pronoun hen .] Språk & Stil 23: 107–140.Google Scholar
2017 “ ‘Vi måste öva upp och ta mod till oss, enda sättet att sedan bli dugliga väljare.’ Strategiskt kommunikationsarbete inom den kvinnliga rösträttsrörelsen.” [“We have to practice and be courageous, that’s the only way to become competent voters.” Strategic communication work within the women’s suffrage movement] Språk och stil 26: 130–160.Google Scholar
Milles, Karin, Jessica Holmdahl, Ida Melander and Kerstin Fugl-Meyer
2018 “ ‘Something that stretches during sex’ Replacing the word hymen with vaginal corona to challenge patriarchal views on virginity.” Gender and Language 12 (3): 294–317. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mills, Sara
1995 Feminist Stylistics. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
2008 Language and Sexism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Moi, Toril
1985 Sexual/Textual Politics. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Nash, Catherine J., Andrew Gorman-Murray and Kath Browne
2019 “Geographies of intransigence: Freedom of speech and heteroactivist resistances in Canada, Great Britain and Australia”. Social & Cultural Geography: 1–21. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Parks, Janet B. and Mary Ann Roberton
1998 “Contemporary arguments against nonsexist language: Blaubergs (1980) revisited.” Sex Roles 39: 445–461. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pauwels, Anne
2003 “Linguistic sexism and feminist linguistic activism.” In The Handbook of Language and Gender, ed. by Janet Holmes and Miriam Meyerhoff, 550–570. Oxford: Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pettersson, Stellan and Emma Sköldberg
2020 “To discriminate between discrimination and inclusion: A lexicographer’s dilemma.” In Euralex 2020. Proceedings Book 1, ed. ny Zoe Gavrilidou, Maria Mitsiaki and Asimakis Fliatouras, 381–386. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pollack, Ester
2019 “Sweden and the MeToo Movement.” Interactions: Studies in Communication & Culture, 10 (3): 185–200.Google Scholar
Prewitt-Freilino, Jennifer L., T. Andrew Caswell and Emmi K. Laakso
2012 “The Gendering of Language: A Comparison of Gender Equality in Countries with Gendered, Natural Gender, and Genderless Languages. Sex Roles (66): 268–281. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Reger, Jo
2014 “The Story of a Slut Walk: Sexuality, Race, and Generational Divisions in Contemporary Feminist Activism”. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 44 (1): 84–112. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rentschler, Carrie A. and Samantha C. Thrift
2015 “Doing feminism in the network: Networked laughter and the ‘Binders Full of Women’ meme.” Feminist Theory 16 (3): 329–359. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Richardson, Laurel
2000 “Writing as a Method of Inquiry.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research [2nd ed.], ed. by Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, 923–48. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Rittel, Horst W. J. and Melvin M. Webber
1973 “Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning. Policy Sciences 4: 155–169. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ronee Washington, Adrienne
2020 “ ‘Reclaiming my time’: Signifying, reclamation and the activist strategies of Black women’s language”. Gender and Language 14 (4): 358–385. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rose Russell, Lindsay
2018 “Toward a Feminist Historiography of Lexicography.” Dictionaries: Journal of the Dictionary Society of North America, 39 (1): 167–183. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Samuel, Steven, Geoff Cole and Madeline J. Eacott
2019 “Grammatical gender and linguistic relativity: A systematic review.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 26: 1767–1786. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sarachild, Kathie
2000 “A Program for Feminist Consciousness-Raising.” In Radical feminism: A documentary reader, ed. by Barbara A. Crow, 273–276. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Schulz, Muriel R.
1990 “The semantic derogation of women.” In The Feminist Critique of Language, ed. by Deborah Cameron, 134–147. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Sendén, Marie Gustafsson, Emma A. Bäck and Anna Lindqvist
2015 “Introducing a gender-neutral pronoun in a natural gender language: The influence of time on attitudes and behavior.” Frontiers in Psychology 6 (893): 1–12. Link: https://​www​.frontiersin​.org​/articles​/10​.3389​/fpsyg​.2015​.00893​/full
Shifman, Limor
2014 “The Cultural Logic of Photo-based Meme Genres.” Journal of Visual Culture, 13 (3): 340–358. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Solnit, Rebecca
2014 Men Explain Things to Me. Chicago: Haymarket Books.Google Scholar
Spender, Dale
1980 Man Made Language. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Stéenhoff, Frida
1910 Minfru, fru eller fröken. Ett reformförslag. [Mywife, miss or mrs. A reform proposal.] Stockholm: Björck & Börjesson.Google Scholar
St. Pierre, Elizabeth Adams
2002 “Circling the Text: Nomadic Writing Practices.” In The Qualitative Inquiry Reader, ed. by Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, 51–70. Thousand Oaks: Sage.Google Scholar
Sundén, Jenny and Susanna Paasonen
2020 Who’s Laughing Now? Feminist Tactics in Social Media. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Svenska Akademien
2015 Svenska Akademiens ordlista över svenska språket. [The Swedish Academy’s Swedish Language Dictionary.] Stockholm: Svenska Akademien.Google Scholar
Tavitz, Margit and Efrén O. Pérez
2019 “Language influences mass opinion toward gender and LGBT equality”. PNAS 116 (34): 16781–16786. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tranchese, Alessia and Lisa Sugiura
2021 “ ‘I Don’t Hate All Women, Just Those Stuck-Up Bitches’: How Incels and Mainstream Pornography Speak the Same Extreme Language of Misogyny.” Violence against Women: 1–26. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Turton, Stephen
2021 “Deadnaming as disformative utterance: the redefinition of trans womanhood on Urban Dictionary”. Gender and Language 15 (1): 42–64. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
UNESCO, Division for Gender Equality Cabinet of the Director-General
2019 “UNESCO Participation Programme Priority Gender Equality Guidelines”. Retrieved from: https://​en​.unesco​.org​/system​/files​/guidelines​_for​_pp​_-​_annex​_3​.pdf. [2021-06-30.]
Vergoossen, Hellen P., Emma A. Renström, Anna Lindqvist and Marie Gustafsson Sendén
2020a “Four dimensions of criticism against gender-fair language.” Sex Roles, 83 (5–6): 328–337. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Vergoossen, Hellen P., Philip Pärnamets, Emma A. Renström and Marie Gustafsson Sendén
2020b “Are New Gender-Neutral Pronouns Difficult to Process in Reading? The Case of Hen in SWEDISH”. Frontiers in Psychology 11 (574356): 1–10. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Vervecken, Dries, Pascal M. Gygax, Ute Gabriel, Matthias Guillod and Bettina Hannover
2015 “Warm-hearted businessmen, competitive housewives? Effects of gender-fair language on adolescents’ perceptions of occupations.” Frontiers in Psychology 6 (1437): 1–10. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Westveer, Thom, Petra Sleeman and Enoch O. Aboh
2018 “Discriminating Dictionaries? Feminine Forms of Profession Nouns in Dictionaries of French and German.” International Journal of Lexicography 31 (4): 371–393. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wong, Andrew D.
2005 “The reappropriation of tongzhi .” Language in Society 34: 763–793. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Young, Stacey
1997 Changing the Wor(l)d: Discourse, Politics, and the Feminist Movement. London & New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Zimman, Lal
2014 “The discursive construction of sex: Remaking and reclaiming the gendered body in talk about genitals among trans men.” In Queer excursions: Retheorizing binaries in language, gender, and sexuality, ed. by Lal Zimman, Jenny Davis and John Raclaw, 13–34. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2017 “Transgender language reform: some challenges and strategies for promoting trans-affirming, gender-inclusive language”. Journal of Language and Discrimination, 1 (1): 84–105. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ås, Berit
1978 “Hersketeknikker”. [Master Suppression Techniques.] Kjerringråd: kvinnepolitisk tidsskrift: 17–21.Google Scholar
2004 “The Five Master Suppression Techniques.” In Women In White: The European Outlook, ed. by Birgitta Evengård, 78–83. Stockholm: Stockholm City Council.Google Scholar