Artificial intelligence

Steven Gillis, Walter DaelemansKoenraad De Smedt
Table of contents

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science in which methods and techniques are developed that permit intelligent computer systems to be built. These systems allow the synthesis of different aspects of human and animal cognition: perception, action, communication, problem solving, and learning. We will not be concerned here with the question whether these systems are really intelligent; this is a controversial philosophical issue (see e.g. Copeland 1993; Searle 1984; Pylyshyn 1984; Harnad 1989; Hayes et al. 1992). The meaningful use of a natural language in order to communicate is considered to be a task requiring intelligence, even if the ability of people to speak and understand everyday language were not related to other cognitive abilities.

Full-text access is restricted to subscribers. Log in to obtain additional credentials. For subscription information see Subscription & Price.

References

Allen, J.
1983aRecognizing intentions from natural language utterances. In M. Brady & R. Berwick (eds.): 107–166. Google Scholar
1983bARGOT: A system overview. Computers and Mathematics with Applications 9: 97–109. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1994Understanding natural language. Addison-Wesley. Google Scholar
Allen, J. & D. Litman
1986Plans, goals and language. Proceedings of the IEEE 74: 939–947. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Allen, J. & C. Perrault
1980Analyzing intention in utterances. Artificial Intelligence 15: 143–178. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J.R.
1983The architecture of cognition. Harvard University Press. Google Scholar
Andriessen, J. & K. De Smedt & M. Zock
1995Computational models of discourse planning. In A. Dijkstra & K. De Smedt (eds.). Google Scholar
Appelt, D.E.
1982Planning natural-language utterances. Proceedings AAAI-82 : 59–62. Google Scholar
1985Planning English sentences. Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Barr, A. & E.A. Feigenbaum
1989The handbook of artificial intelligence. Kaufmann. Google Scholar
Bobrow, D.
1968Natural language input for a computer problem-solving system. In M. Minsky (ed.) Semantic information processing: 146–226. MIT Press.  BoPGoogle Scholar
Bonarini, A.
1987User modeling in person-machine conversation. Proceedings of COGNITIVA-87 : 377–382. Google Scholar
Brady, M. & R. Berwick
(eds.) 1983Computational models of discourse. MIT Press. Google Scholar
Bratko, I.
1990Prolog programming for artificial intelligence. Addison-Wesley. Google Scholar
Carberry, S.
1983Tracking user goals in an information-seeking environment. Proceedings AAAI-83 : 59–63. Google Scholar
1988Modeling the user’s plans and goals. Computational Linguistics 14: 23–37. Google Scholar
1989Plan recognition and its use in understanding dialog. In A. Kobsa & W. Wahlster (eds.): 133–162. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cawsey, A.
1990aA computational model of explanatory discourse. In P. Luff , N. Gilbert & D. Frohlich (eds.): 221–234. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1990bGenerating explanatory discourse. In R. Dale , C. Mellish & M. Zock (eds.): 75–101. Google Scholar
Chignell, M.H. & P.A. Hancock
1988Intelligent interface design. In M. Helander (ed.): 969–995. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chin, D.
1989KNOME: Modeling what the user knows in UC. In A. Kobsa & W. Wahlster (eds.): 70–107. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Claassen, W.
1992Generating referring expressions in a multimodal environment. In R. Dale , E. Hovy , D. Roesner & O. Stock (eds.): 247–262. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Clocksin, W.F. & C.S. Mellish
1984Programming in Prolog. Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cohen, P. & C. Perrault
1979Elements of a plan-based theory of speech acts. Cognitive Science 3: 177–212. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cohen, P. & J. Morgan & M. Pollack
1990Intentions in communication. MIT Press.  BoPGoogle Scholar
Copeland, J.
1993Artificial intelligence. Blackwell. Google Scholar
Daelemans, W. & K. De Smedt & G. Gazdar
1992Inheritance in natural language processing. Computational Linguistics 18: 205–218. Google Scholar
Dale, R. & E. Hovy & D. Roesner & O. Stock
(eds.) 1992Aspects of automated natural language generation. Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dale, R. & C. Mellish & M. Zock
1990Introduction. In R. Dale , C. Mellish & M. Zock (eds.): 1–15. Google Scholar
(eds.) 1990Current research in natural language generation. Academic Press. Google Scholar
Dijkstra, A. & K. De Smedt
(eds.) 1995Computational psycholinguistics. Harvester Wheatsheaf. Google Scholar
Doyle, J.
1979A truth maintenance system. Artificial Intelligence 12: 231–272. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1983The ins and outs of reason maintenance. Proceedings IJCAI-83 : 352–354. Google Scholar
Finin, T.
1989GUMS: A general user modeling shell. In A. Kobsa & W. Wahlster (eds.): 411–430. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Finin, T. & D. Drager
1986GUMS: A general user modeling system. Proceedings of the 6th Canadian Conference on Artificial Intelligence : 24–29. Google Scholar
Flach, P.
1994Simply logical. Wiley. Google Scholar
Gazdar, G. & C. Mellish
1989aNatural language processing in Prolog. Addison-Wesley. Google Scholar
Gazdar, G.C. Mellish
1989bNatural language processing in LISP. Addison-Wesley. Google Scholar
Garnham, A.
1995Computational models of discourse comprehension. In A. Dijkstra & K. De Smedt (eds.). Google Scholar
Green, B. & A. Wolf & C. Chomsky & K. Laughery
1963BASEBALL: An automatic question-answerer. In E. Feigenbaum & J. Feldman (eds.) Computers and thought: 207–216. McGraw-Hill. Google Scholar
Grosz, B.
1977The representation and use of focus in a system for understanding dialogs. Proceedings IJCAI-77 : 67–76. Google Scholar
Harnad, S.
1989Minds, machines and Searle. Journal of Theoretical and Experimental Artificial Intelligence 1: 5–25. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hayes, P. & S. Harnad & D. Perlis & N. Block
1992Virtual symposium on the virtual mind. Minds and Machines 2: 217–238. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Helander, M.
(ed.) 1988Handbook of human-computer interaction. Elsevier Science. Google Scholar
Horacek, H. & M. Zock
(eds.) 1993New concepts in natural language generation. Pinter. Google Scholar
Hovy, E.
1988aPlanning coherent multisentential text. Proceedings of the 26th ACL Conference : 163–169. Google Scholar
1988bOn the study of text planning and realization: Proceedings of the AAAI Workshop on Text Planning and Realization . 17–29. Google Scholar
1990Unresolved problems in paragraph planning. In R. Dale , C. Mellish & M. Zock (eds.): 17–45. Google Scholar
1991Approaches to the planning of coherent text. In C. Paris , W. Swartout & W. Mann (eds.): 83–102. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, S.
1982Cooperative responses from a portable natural language query system. Artificial Intelligence 19: 165–188. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kass, R. & T. Finin
1988Modeling the user in natural language systems. Computational Linguistics 14: 5–22. Google Scholar
Kempen, G.
1989Language generation systems. In I. Bátori , W. Lenders & W. Putschke (eds.) Computational Linguistics: 471–480. de Gruyter. Google Scholar
1987Natural language generation. Nijhoff. DOI logo  BoPGoogle Scholar
Kobsa, A.
1989A taxonomy of beliefs and goals for user models in dialog systems. In A. Kobsa & W. Wahlster (eds.): 52–68. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kobsa, A. & J. Allgayer & C. Reddig & N. Reithinger & D. Schmauks & K. Harbiush & W. Wahlster
1986Combining deictic gestures and natural language for referent identification. Proceedings of COLING-86 : 356–361. Google Scholar
Kobsa, A. & W. Wahlster
(eds.) 1989User models in dialogue systems. Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lascarides, A. & J. Oberlander
1992Abducing temporal discourse. In R. Dale , E. Hovy , D. Roesner & O. Stock (eds.): 176–182. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lehnert, W.
1978The process of question answering. Erlbaum.  BoPGoogle Scholar
Litman, D.
1986Linguistic coherence. Proceedings of the 24th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics : 215–223. Google Scholar
Luff, P. & N. Gilbert & D. Frohlich
(eds.) 1990Computers and conversation. Academic Press. Google Scholar
Luger, G.F. & W.A. Stubblefield
1993Artificial intelligence. Benjamin Cummings.Google Scholar
Mann, W. & S. Thompson
1988Rhetorical structure theory. Text 8: 243–281.  BoP DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mccoy, K.
1989Highlighting a user model to respond to misconceptions. In A. Kobsa & W. Wahlster (eds.): 233–254. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mccoy, K. & J. Cheng
1991Focus of attention. In C. Paris , W. Swartout & W. Mann (eds.): 103–124. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mcdonald, D.
1992Natural language generation. In S. Shapiro (ed.): 983–997. Google Scholar
Mckeown, K.R.
1985aDiscourse strategies and focus constraints to generate natural language text. Artificial Intelligence 27: 1–41. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1985bText generation. Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mckeown, K.R. & M. Elhadad & Y. Fukumoto & J. Lim & C. Lombardi & J. Robin & F. Smadja
1990Natural language generation in COMET. In R. Dale , C. Mellish & M. Zock (eds.): 103–139. Google Scholar
Mctear, M.
1987The articulate computer. Blackwell. Google Scholar
Minsky, M.
1975A framework for representing knowledge. In P. Winston (ed.) The psychology of computer vision: 211–277. McGraw-Hill.  BoPGoogle Scholar
Moore, J.D.
1989Responding to ‘Huh’. Proceedings CHI-89: 91–91. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Moore, J.D. & W. Swartout
1991A reactive approach to explanation. In C.L. Paris , W. Swartout & W. Mann (eds.): 3–48. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Morik, K.
1989User models and conversational settings. In A. Kobsa & W. Wahlster (eds.): 364–385. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Morik, K. & C. Rollinger
1985The real estate agent. AI Magazine 6: 44–52. Google Scholar
Murre, J. & R. Goebel
1995Computational modelling in connectionism. In A. Dijkstra & K. De Smedt (eds.). Google Scholar
Newell, A.
1980Physical symbol systems. Cognitive Science 4: 135–183. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Newell, A. & H. Simon
1972Human problem solving. Prentice-Hall. Google Scholar
Newell, A. & P.S. Rosenbloom & J.E. Laird
1989Symbolic architectures for cognition. In M.I. Posner (ed.) Cognitive science: 93–131. Bradford/MIT Press. Google Scholar
Norman, D.A.
1986Cognitive engineering. In D.A. Norman & S. Draper (eds.) User centered system design: 31–61. Erlbaum. Google Scholar
Norvig, P.
1992Paradigms of artificial intelligence programming. Morgan Kaufmann. Google Scholar
Paris, C.
1988Tailoring object descriptions to the user’s level of expertise. Computational Linguistics 14: 64–78. Google Scholar
1991Generation and explanation. In C. Paris , W. Swartout & W. Mann (eds.): 49–82. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Paris, C. & K. Mckeown
1987Discourse strategies for describing complex physical objects. In G. Kempen (ed.): 97–115. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Paris, C. & W. Swartout & W. Mann
(eds.) 1991Natural language generation in artificial intelligence and computational linguistics. Kluwer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pearl, J.
1984Heuristics. Addison-Wesley. Google Scholar
Pereira, F. & S. Shieber
1987Prolog and natural language analysis. CSLI Lecture Notes 10. Google Scholar
Pollack, M.E.
1986A model of plan inference that distinguishes between the beliefs of actors and observers. Proceedings of the 24th Annual Meeting of the Association of Computational Linguistics : 207–214. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pylyshyn, Z.
1984Computation and cognition. Bradford Books. Google Scholar
Quilici, A.
1989Detecting and responding to plan-oriented misconceptions. In A. Kobsa & W. Wahlster (eds.): 108–132. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Quillian, R.
1968Semantic memory. In M. Minsky (ed.) Semantic information processing: 227–270. MIT Press. Google Scholar
Ramsay, A.
1988Formal methods in artificial intelligence. Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar
Reichman, R.
1985Getting computers to talk like you and me. MIT Press.  BoPGoogle Scholar
Reiter, E.
1990Generating descriptions that exploit a user’s domain knowledge. In R. Dale , C. Mellish & M. Zock (eds.): 257–285. Google Scholar
Rich, E.
1979User modelling via stereotypes. Cognitive Science 3: 329–354. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1983Users are individuals. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies 18: 188–214. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1989Stereotypes and user modeling. In A. Kobsa & W. Wahlster (eds.): 35–51. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Robinson, A.
1981Determining verb phrase referents in dialogs. American Journal of Computational Linguistics 7: 1–18.  BoPGoogle Scholar
Rosch, E. & C. Mervis
1975Family resemblances. Cognitive Psychology 7: 573–605. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schank, R.
1972Conceptual dependency. Cognitive Psychology 3: 552–630. DOI logo  BoPGoogle Scholar
1975Conceptual information processing. North-Holland.  BoPGoogle Scholar
1980Language and memory. Cognitive Science 4: 243–284. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1982Dynamic memory. Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar
Schank, R. & R. Abelson
1977Scripts, plans, goals and understanding. Erlbaum.  BoPGoogle Scholar
Scott, D. & C. De Souza
1990Getting the message across in RST-based text generation. In R. Dale , C. Mellish & M. Zock (eds.): 47–73. Google Scholar
Searle, J.R.
1984Minds, brains and machines. Penguin. Google Scholar
Sidner, C.
1983What the speaker means. Computers and Mathematics with Applications 9: 71–82. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1985Plan parsing for intended response recognition of speaker’s plan in discourse. Computational Intelligence 1: 1–10. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Simmons, R. & S. Klein & K. Mcconlogue
1964Indexing and dependency logic for answering English questions. American Documentation 15: 196–202. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Shapiro, S.
(ed.) 1992Encyclopedia of artificial intelligence. Wiley. Google Scholar
Sowa, J.F.
1991Toward the expressive power of natural language. In J.F. Sowa (ed.) Principles of semantic networks: 157–190. Morgan Kaufmann. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sparck Jones, K.
1989Realism about user modeling. In A. Kobsa & W. Wahlster (eds.): 341–363. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1991Tailoring the output to the user. In C. Paris , W. Swartout & W. Mann (eds.): 201–225. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Thompson, H.
1977Strategy and tactics in language production. In W. Beach , S. Fox & S. Philosoph (eds.) Papers from the Thirteenth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society: 651–668. Google Scholar
Turing, A.
1964Computing machinery and intelligence. In A. Andersen (ed.) Minds and machines: 4–30. Prentice Hall. Google Scholar
Wahlster, W. & A. Kobsa
1989User models in dialog systems. In A. Kobsa & W. Wahlster (eds.): 4–33. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Waltz, D.L. & J.B. Pollack
1985Massively parallel parsing. Cognitive Science 9: 51–79. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Weizenbaum, J.
1966ELIZA: a computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machine. CACM 9: 36–45. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1984Computer power and human reason. Penguin. Google Scholar
Wilensky, R.
1983Planning and understanding. Addison-Wesley.  BoPGoogle Scholar
Wilensky, R. & Y. Arens & D. Chin
1984Talking to UNIX in English. CACM 27: 574–593. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wilensky, R. & D. Chin & M. Luria & J. Martin & J. Mayfield & D. Wu
1988The Berkeley UNIX Consultant Project. Computational Linguistics 14: 35–84. Google Scholar
Winograd, T.
1972Understanding natural language. Academic Press. DOI logo  BoPGoogle Scholar
Winston, P.H.
1993Artificial intelligence (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. Google Scholar
Winston, P.H. & B.K. Horn
1989LISP. Addison-Wesley. Google Scholar
Woods, W.
1970Transition network grammars for natural language analysis. Communications of the ACM 13: 591–606. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Woods, W. & B. Nash-Webber & R. Kaplan
1972The Lunar sciences natural language system final report. BBN report 3438. Bolt, Beranek and Newman. Google Scholar
Zock, M. & G. Sabah
(eds.) 1988Advances in natural language generation. Pinter. Google Scholar