Language ideologies in Barbados: Processes and paradigms

Janina Fenigsen
Abstract

Barbadian ways of speaking draw their stylistic richness from intertwined and differentially valued resources of Creole (Bajan) and Barbadian English. Barbadians (and linguists) interpret this formal diversity through two ideological paradigms. One (labeled in Bajan, “adjusting to suit”) corresponds to linguist’s “register”. By attending to laminations of individual repertoires and to skills of their selective contextual deployment, the paradigm indexes the richness of speakers’ resources. The other paradigm interprets the stylistic diversity of speakers’ repertoires in essentializing, “sociolectal” terms that iconically link social categories and polarized language varieties. By exaggerating the distinctiveness of language varieties and by turning them into unambiguous indices of fixed social personae, the paradigm colludes with the hierarchies of linguistic and social prestige. These paradigms and hierarchies can be approached in terms of historical processes that defined their social and linguistic targets. Such a framework, however, neglects institutional sites pivotal in the continued production of cultural orders of language - the literature, media, and theater. Within these sites, characterized by hightened metadiscursive awareness, ideological tensions surrounding language and its couplings with social, racial, and national identities are scripted and launched into public domain. Macrohistorical explanations also neglect the processes that turn specific linguistic forms into emblems of Barbadian language varieties while erasing others. By considering strategies and practices of (re)allocation of linguistic styles to characters in literature, journalism, and theater, I explore sociocultural and semiotic underpinnings of drawing Creole and Barbadian English forms into production of linguistically marked social identities and socially marked language varieties.

Keywords:
Quick links
A browser-friendly version of this article is not yet available. View PDF
Bakhtin, Mikhail M
(1981) [1934-35] The dialogic imagination: Four essays. Michael Holquist (ed.), C. Emerson and M. Holquist (trans.). Austin: University of Texas Press.
Bourdieu, Pierre
(1991)  Language and symbolic power . John B. Thompson (ed.), G. Raymond and M. Adamson (trans.). Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.
Collymore, Frank A
(1992) [1955] Barbadian dialect: Notes for a glossary of words and phrases of Barbadian dialect. Barbados National Trust.Google Scholar
Brown, Roger, and Albert Gilman
(1960) The pronouns of power and solidarity. In Th. Sebeok (ed.), Style in Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 253-76.Google Scholar
Coupland, Nikolas
(2001) Language, situation, and the relational self: Theorizing dialect-style in sociolinguistics. In P. Eckert and J.R. Rickford (eds.), Style and sociolinguistic variation. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, pp. 185-210.Google Scholar
Fenigsen, Janina
(1999) A broke-up mirror: Representing Bajan in print. Cultural Anthropology 14.1: 61-87. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, Charles, A
(1972) [1959] Diglossia. In Pier P. Giglioli (ed.), Language and social context. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, pp. 232-251.Google Scholar
Gumperz, John
(1982) Discourse strategies. New York: Cambridge University Press.  BoP DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Herzfeld, Michael
(1987) Anthropology through the looking-glass: Critical ethnography in the margins of Europe. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Irvine, Judith T
(1985) Status and style in language. Annual Review of Anthropology. Mountain View, CA: Annual Reviews, pp. 557-81.Google Scholar
(2001) “Style” as distinctiveness: The culture and ideology of linguistic differentiation. In P. Eckert and J.R. Rickford (eds.), Style and sociolinguistic variation. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, pp. 21-43.Google Scholar
Irvine, Judith T., and Susan Gal
(2000) Language ideology and linguistic differentiation. In P.V. Kroskrity (ed.), Regimes of language: Ideologies, polities, and identities. Santa Fe NM: School of American Research Press, pp. 35-84.Google Scholar
Jaffe, Alexandra
(1999) Ideologies in action: Language politics on Corsica. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI logo  BoPGoogle Scholar
Kulick, Don
(1992) Language shift and cultural reproduction: Socialization, self and syncretism in a Papua New Guinean village. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.  BoPGoogle Scholar
Labov, William
(1966) Hypercorrection by the lower middle class as a factor in linguistic change. In William Bright (ed.), Sociolinguistics. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
(1972) Sociolinguistic Patterns. Oxford: Blackwell.  BoPGoogle Scholar
Meek, Norma
(2001) Pick sense outa dat! St. Thomas, Barbados: Norma Meek.Google Scholar
Mertz, Elizabeth, and Richard Parmentier
(1985) (eds.) Semiotic mediation: Sociocultural and psychological perspectives. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.  BoPGoogle Scholar
Nyeelah
(2001) To Star, with love. Cane Vale, Barbados: Homegrown Press.Google Scholar
Rampton, Ben
(1995) Crossing: Language and ethnicity among adolescents. Harlow, Essex, United Kingdom: Longman Group Limited, Real Language Series.  BoPGoogle Scholar
Romaine, Suzanne
(1994) Language standardization and linguistic fragmentation in Tok Pisin. In Marcyliena Morgan (ed.), Language and the social construction of identity in creole situations. Los Angeles: Center for Afro-American Studies Publications, UCLA, 19-42.Google Scholar
Schieffelin, Bambi B., and Rachelle Charlier Doucet
(1998) The "real" Haitian Creole: Ideology, metalinguistics, and orthographic choice. In B. Schieffelin, K.A. Woolard, and P.V. Kroskrity (eds.), Language ideologies: Practice and theory. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics (16). New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 285-316.  BoPGoogle Scholar
Silverstein, Michael
(1976) Shifters, linguistic categories, and cultural description. In K. Basso and H. Shelby (eds.), Meaning in anthropology. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 11-55.Google Scholar
(1995) Indexical order and the dialectics of sociolinguistic life. In R. Ide, R. Parker and Y. Sunaoshi (eds.), Proceedings of the third annual symposium about language and society - Austin. Texas Linguistic Forum, vol. 36. Austin: University of Texas Department of Linguistics, pp. 266-95.
(1998) The uses and utility of ideology: A commentary. In B. Schieffelin, K A. Woolard, and P.V. Kroskrity (eds.), Language ideologies: Practice and theory. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics (16). New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 123-145.Google Scholar
(2001) The limits of awareness. In A. Duranti (ed.), Linguistic anthropology: A reader. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, pp. 382-401.Google Scholar
(2003) The whens and wheres - as well as hows - of ethnolinguistic recognition. Public Culture 15.3: 531-557. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Spitulnik, Debra
(1998) Mediating unity and diversity: The production of language ideologies in Zambian broadcasting. In B. Schieffelin, K.A. Woolard and P.V. Kroskrity (eds.), Language ideologies: Practice and theory. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics (16). New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 163-88.Google Scholar
Urban, Greg
(1989) The “I” of discourse. In B. Lee and G. Urban (eds.), Semiotics, self, and society. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Whorf, Benjamin L
(1956) [1937] Grammatical categories. In John B. Carroll (ed.), Language, thought, and reality: Selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 87-101.Google Scholar
Woolard, Kathryn A
(1985) Language variation and cultural hegemony: Towards an integration of sociolinguistic and social theory. American Ethnologist 12: 738-48. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1987) Codeswitching and comedy in Catalonia. Papers in Pragmatics 1: 106-122.  BoP DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1998) Introduction: Language ideology as a field of inquiry. In B. Schieffelin, K.A. Woolard, and P.V. Kroskrity (eds.), Language ideologies: Practice and theory. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics (16). New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 3-41.  BoPGoogle Scholar