Chapter 4
The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English
Exercise 4.4Morphological and Morphemic Analysis
Divide the following words into morphs (use slashes) and then list the morphemes. Note that some words may require more than one analysis into morphemes. List the morphological realization rule(s) responsible for each formation.
Example: mice's
Answer: mice/s{mouse} + {pl} + {poss} fusional and agglutinative
least
set
fish
should
hoped
hearing
were
elder
must
topmost
our
rings
sayings
broken
these
whose
older
her
taken
women's
In the following sets of words, it might be said that the initial consonant cluster displays some sound symbolism or onomatopoeia. For example, the sn- cluster seems to refer to movement of the nose and mouth. These clusters have been given the name phonesthemes. Can you give meanings for the remaining clusters? Can you think of other clusters that function this way?
snarl, sneer, snore, snigger, snub, snort, sneeze, sniff
spatter, spew, spit, spout, spray, spurt, sputter
flail, flap, flare, flee, flicker, float, flop, flume, flame, fluster, flux, flourish
glance, glare, gleam, glimmer, gloat, glint, glisten, gloss, glory, globe, glaze, glamour
Certain final and medial syllables seem to have some symbolism as well:
scramble, shamble, ramble
pick, prick, kick, tick, flick, nick, click
grudge, smudge, sludge, drudge, nudge, fudge
mash, bash, slash, crash, flash, gash, smash
tangle, mangle, dangle, jangle
jerk, nerd, shirk, lurk, murder
What are the meanings of these forms?
Can these apparently meaningful units be analyzed as morphemes? Why or why not?
| a. |
least |
{little} + {supl} |
fusional |
| b. |
set |
{set} + {pres} {set} + {past} {set} + {pstprt} {set} + {sg} |
null realization zero zero null realization |
| c. |
fish |
{fish} + {sg} {fish} + {pl} {fish} + {pres} |
null realization zero null realization |
| d. |
should |
{shall} + {past} |
fusional |
| e. |
hop/ed |
{hope} + {past} {hope} + {pstprt} |
agglutinative agglutinative |
| f. |
hear/ing |
{hear} + {prsprt} {hear} + {gerund} + {sg} |
agglutinative agglutinative and null |
| g. |
were |
{be} + {past} + {pl} |
fusional |
| h. |
elder |
{old} + {compr} {elder} + {sg} |
fusional null |
| i. |
must |
{must} + {pres} {must} + {past} |
null realization zero |
| j. |
top/most |
{top} + {supl} |
agglutinative |
| k. |
our |
{1st} + {pl} + {poss} |
fusional |
| l. |
ring/s |
{ring} + {pl} {ring} + {pres} |
agglutinative null realization |
| m. |
say/ing/s |
{say} + {gerund} + {pl} |
agglutinative |
| n. |
brok/en |
{break} + {pstprt} |
fusional |
| o. |
these |
{this} + {pl} |
fusional |
| p. |
who/se |
{who} + {poss} |
agglutinative |
| q. |
old/er |
{old} + {compr} |
agglutinative |
| r. |
her |
{3rd} + {f} + {sg} + {poss} {3rd} + {f} + {sg} + {obj} |
fusional fusional |
| s. |
tak/en |
{take} + {pstprt} |
agglutinative |
| t. |
women/s |
{woman} + {pl} + {poss} |
fusional and agglutinative |
The sp- cluster refers to jet movement of water, the fl- cluster to flying or flowing movement, and the gl- cluster to shining light. Other clusters with phonesthemic force are sl-, str-, st-, sw-, sm-, thr-.
-ick refers to sudden, sharp movement, -udge is slow, heavy material, -ash to a destructive force.
If these forms have the status of a morpheme, then one is left with strange residues which certainly are not morphemes, since they have no meaning and do not occur elsewhere, such as -arl, -eer, -ore, -igger, -ub, -ort, -eeze, -iff in the case of sn-. Furthermore, the sound symbolism breaks down fairly quickly, since one can think of a number of counterexamples, words beginning with sn- which do not refer to movement of the nose or mouth, such as snatch, snare, snip, snake, or snail. These forms should, therefore, probably not be considered morphemes, but should be seen as resulting from processes of rhyme.