Whenever people talk together they establish and sustain a little world of shared attention and involvement, a “communion of mutual engagement,” as Goffman (1957) described it. As such participation, or better co-participation, in an activity cannot be reduced to mere physical co-presence. Rather, participation (or non-participation) in talk is organized moment-by-moment, incarnately in and through that talk. While this may seem obvious, it raises a series of important questions about the organization of human conduct. Specifically, what are the practices of speaking, listening, gesturing, posturing and so on by which persons constitute themselves and co-present others as participants in social interaction and participants of a particular kind? What forms of participation are possible and how are these realized in the particular activities with which they are associated? In this chapter I trace ideas about this fundamental aspect of human interaction from an initial conception of the “speech circuit” through mid-century notions of “channel” and “phatic communion” to Goffman's innovative rethinking of the issue in terms of “mutual monitoring possibilities” and his trail-blazing analysis in the late essay “Footing”. I conclude with a discussion of current research in conversation analysis, linguistic anthropology and pragmatics that investigates the complex structures and practices of participation that characterize human social interaction.
References
Benveniste, E.
1971The nature of pronouns. In E. Benveniste, Problems in General Linguistics. University of Miami Press.
Boas, F.
1911Introduction. In F. Boas, The Handbook of American Indian Languages 1: 3–83. Bureau of American Ethnology. BoP
2000The emergent participant: Interactive patterns in the socialization of Tzotzil (Mayan) infants. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 8(2): 131–161.
Du Bois, J.
1986Self-evidence and ritual speech. In W. Chafe & J. Nichols (eds), Evidentiality: The Linguistic Coding of Epistemology: 313–336. Ablex.
Egbert, M.M.
1994Schisming: The collaborative transformation from a single conversation to multiple conversations. UCLA Ph.D. dissertation.
Enfield, N.J.
2003Demonstratives in space and interaction: data from Lao speakers and implications for semantic analysis. Language 79(1): 82–117.
Fisher, L.E.
1976Dropping remarks and the Barbadian audience. American Ethnologist 3: 227–42.
Goffman, E.
1957Alienation from interaction. Human Relations 10(1): 47–60. BoP
Goffman, E.
1961Encounters: Two Studies in the Sociology of Interaction. Bobbs-Merrill.
Goffman, E.
1963Behavior in Public Places: Notes on the Social Organization of Gathering. Free Press.
Goffman, E.
1964The neglected situation. American Anthropologist 66(6, pt. II): 133–136. BoP
Goffman, E.
1974Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. Harper & Row. BoP
Goffman, E.
1981Footing. In E. Goffman, Forms of Talk. University of Pennsylvania Press. BoP
Gombrich, E.H.
1972Action and expression in Western art. In R. Hinde, Non-Verbal Communication: 373–393. Cambridge University Press.
Goodwin, C.
1979The interactive construction of a sentence in natural conversation. In G. Psathas, Everyday Language: Studies in Ethnomethodology: 97–121. Irvington Publishers. BoP
Goodwin, C.
1980Restarts, pauses, and the achievement of mutual gaze at turn-beginning. Sociological Inquiry 50: 272–302. BoP
Goodwin, C.
1981Conversational Organization: Interaction Between Speakers and Hearers. Academic Press. BoP
Goodwin, C.
1986Audience diversity, participation and interpretation. Text 6(3): 283–316. BoP
Goodwin, C.
1987Forgetfulness as an interactive resource. Social Psychology Quarterly 50(2): 115–130.
Goodwin, C.
1988Participation frameworks in children's argument. In K. Ekberg & P.E. Mjaavatn, Growing Into A Modern World: Proceedings from An International Interdisciplinary Conference on the Life and Development of Children in Modern Society: 1188–1195. The Norwegian Centre for Child Research.
Goodwin, C.
2000Action and embodiment within situated human interaction. Journal of Pragmatics 32: 1489–1522. BoP
Goodwin, C.
2002Time in action. Current Anthropology 43(Supplement): 19–35.
Goodwin, C.
2007Interactive footing. In E. Holt & R. Clift, Reporting Talk: Reported speech in interaction: 16–46. Cambridge University Press. BoP
Goodwin, C. & M. Goodwin
2004Participation. In A. Duranti, A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology: 222–244. Blackwell. BoP
Goodwin, C. & M.H. Goodwin
1987Concurrent operations on talk: Notes on the interactive organization of assessments. IPrA Papers in Pragmatics 1(1): 1–52.
Goodwin, C. & M.H. Goodwin
1990Interstitial argument. In A. Grimshaw, Conflict Talk: 85–117. Cambridge University Press.
Goodwin, C. & M.H. Goodwin
1992Context, activity and participation. In P. Auer & A. Di Luzio, The Contextualization of Language: 77–99. Benjamins.
Goodwin, M.H.
1980Processes of mutual monitoring implicated in the production of description sequences. Sociological Inquiry 50: 303–317.
Goodwin, M.H.
1990He-Said-She-Said: Talk as Social Organization among Black Children. Indiana University Press.
Goodwin, M.H.
1997By-play: negotiating evaluation in story-telling. In G.R. Guy, J. Baugh, D. Schiffrin & C. Feagin, Towards a Social Science of Language: Papers in Honour of William Labov: 77–102. John Benjamins.
Goodwin, M.H. & C. Goodwin
1986Gesture and coparticipation in the activity of searching for a word. Semiotica 62(1/2): 51–75.
Hanks, W.F.
1990Referential Practice: Language and Lived Space Among the Maya. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
Hanks, W.F.
1996Exorcism and the description of participant roles. In M. Silverstein & G. Urban, Natural Histories of Discourse: 160–200. Chicago University Press.
Haviland, J.B.
1979How to talk to your brother-in-law in Guugu Yimidhirr. In T. Shopen, Languages and Their Speakers: 161–240. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Hockett, C.F.
1960The origin of speech. Scientific American 203: 88–96.
Holt, E.
1996Reporting on talk: the use of direct reported speech in conversation. Research on Language and Social Interaction 29(3): 219–245. BoP
Holt, E. & R. Clift
(eds.)2007Reporting Talk: Reported Speech in Interaction. Cambridge University Press. BoP
Irvine, J.T.
1993Insult and responsibility: Verbal abuse in a Wolof village. In J.H. Hill & J.T. Irvine, Responsibility and Evidence in Oral Discourse: 105–134. Cambridge University Press.
Irvine, J.T.
1996Shadow conversations: The indeterminacy of participant roles. In M. Silverstein & G. Urban, Natural Histories of Discourse: 131–159. Chicago University Press.
Jakobson, R.
1980 [1957]Metalanguage as a linguistic problem. In S. Rudy, Contributions to Comparative Mythology: Studies in Linguistics and Philology. Vol. 7 of Selected Writings: 113–121. Mouton.
Jakobson, R.
1987 [1949]Language in operation. In K. Pomorska & S. Rudy, Language in Literature: 50–61. Belknap.
Jakobson, R.
1960Linguistics and poetics. In T. Sebeok, Style in Language: 350–377. MIT Press. BoP
Kendon, A.
1990Conducting Interaction: Patterns of Behavior in Focused Encounters. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. BoP
Lambek, M.
1981Human Spirits : A Cultural Account of Trance in Mayotte. Cambridge University Press.
Lerner, G.
2003Selecting next speaker: The context sensitive operation of a context-free organization. Language in Society 32: 177–201. BoP
Levinson, S.
1988Putting linguistics on a proper footing: explorations in Goffman's concepts of participation. In P. Drew & A. Wootton, Erving Goffman: Exploring the Interaction Order: 161–227. Northeastern University Press.
Luong, H.V.
1990Discursive Practices and Linguistic Meanings: the Vietnamese System of Person Reference. J. Benjamins.
Malinowski, B.
1923The problem of meaning in primitive languages. In C.K. Ogden & I.A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning: 296–336. Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc. BoP
Matthews, G.H.
1965Hidatsa Syntax. Mouton.
Ryle, G.
1949The Concept of Mind. Barnes & Noble.
Sacks, H.
1995Lectures on Conversation (2 Vols.). Basil Blackwell.
Sacks, H., E.A. Schegloff, et al.
1974A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking for conversation. Language 50: 696–735. BoP
Saussure, F.D.
1959Course in General Linguistics. Edited by Charles Bally & Albert Sechehaye, in collaboration with Albert Riedlinger, translated from the French by Wade Baskin. Philosophical Library.
Schegloff, E.A.
1997Practices and actions: Boundary cases of other-initiated repair. Discourse Processes 23: 499–545. BoP
Schegloff, E.A.
1998Body torque. Social Research 65(3): 535–596.
Schegloff, E.A. & H. Sacks
1973Opening up closings. Semiotica 8: 289–327. BoP
Schieffelin, B.B.
1990The Give and Take of Everyday Life: Language Socialization of Kaluli Children. Cambridge University Press.
Sidnell, J.
1997Organizing social and spatial location: Elicitations in Indo-Guyanese village talk. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 7(2): 143–165.
Sidnell, J.
2005Deixis. In J. Verschueren et al., Handbook of Pragmatics. John Benjamins. BoP
Sidnell, J.
2006Coordinating gesture, talk, and gaze in reenactments. Research on Language and Social Interaction 39(4): 377–409. BoP
Sidnell, J.
frth a“D'you understand that honey”: Gender and participation in conversation. In S. Speer & E. Stokoe, Conversation and Gender. Cambridge University Press.
Sidnell, J.
frth bQuestioning repeats in the talk of four-year old children. In H. Gardner & M. Forrester, Analysing Interactions in Childhood: Methods and Applications. Wiley.
Streeck, J.
1993Gesture as communication I: Its coordination with gaze and speech. Communication Monographs 60(4): 275–299.
Streeck, J. & U. Hartge
1992Previews: gestures at the transition place. In P. Auer & A. Di Luzio, The Contextualization of Language: 135–157. Benjamins.
Tomasello, M.
1999The cultural origins of human cognition. Harvard University Press.
Tomasello, M.
2003Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press. MetBib
Tomasello, M.
2008Origins of Human Communication. MIT Press.
Trevarthan, C.
1998The concept and foundations of infant intersubjectivity. In S. Braten, Intersubjective Communication and Emotion in Early Ontogeny: 15–46. Cambridge University Press.
Urban, G.
1989The ‘I’ of discourse in Shokleng. In B. Lee & G. Urban, Semiotics, Self, and Society: 27–51. Mouton de Gruyter.
Volosinov, V.N.
1973Marxism and the Philosophy of Language. Translated by Ladislav Matejka & I.R. Titunik. Seminar Press. (First Published 1929 and 1930.). BoP
Wagner, A.R.
1939Heralds and Heraldry in the Middle Ages: An Inquiry Into the Growth of the Armorial Function of Heralds. Oxford University Press.