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In:From Carving Runestones to Digitizing Skaldic Poetry: Studies in Germanic philology and historical linguistics
Edited by David Bolter, Erin Noelliste, Christopher D. Sapp and Lane Sorensen
[Studies in Germanic Linguistics 11] 2026
► pp. 276–292

Chapter 16
Diachronic opacity from protracted change in Proto-Germanic

 | Austin Peay State University
This content is being prepared for publication; it may be subject to changes.
Abstract
It is well known that sound changes differ in their duration. Some changes remain active across multiple periods of development; other changes are relegated to a narrow, discrete time frame. Many relative chronologies in historical phonology do not take these durational differences into account. In this chapter, I examine one such instance. I argue that early i-umlaut in Proto-Germanic was a protracted change. Because this development was active concurrently with other later-occurring sound shifts, some forms in relative chronology are opaque, similar to synchronic examples of counterbleeding or overapplication. Understanding this opacity — and being mindful of it — is crucial for evaluating relative chronology and improving reconstruction efforts.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Three sound changes
    • 2.1Early i-umlaut
    • 2.2Pre-rhotic lowering
    • 2.3Non-prominent e-raising
  • 3.The relative chronology problem
    • 3.1Support for non-prominent e-raising before early i-umlaut
    • 3.2A challenge for non-prominent e-raising before early i-umlaut
  • 4.Diachronic opacity from protracted change
    • 4.1Proposed chronology
    • 4.2Evaluating alternatives
    • 4.3Against syllabic allomorphy
  • 5.Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • References
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