Cover not available

Article In: Australian Review of Applied Linguistics: Online-First Articles

What’s in a word?

Being labelled ‘Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CaLD)’

ORCiD logo with link | Curtin University
 | Curtin University
 | Curtin University
 | Curtin University
 | Curtin University
This content is being prepared for publication; it may be subject to changes.
Abstract
In this article, we unpack what we believe to be a discriminatory and discrediting label afforded to growing populations of Australians — Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CaLD). This term is used to describe everyone who is not Aboriginal or Torres Islander or Anglo-Saxon/Anglo-Celtic. Through qualitative, semi-structured, in-depth ethnographic interviews and thematic analysis, including some abductive analysis, we aimed to investigate how those labelled CaLD experienced this term, including their feelings about being constructed as CaLD, and how they believed they were impacted by this label. Using both labelling theory (Durkheim, E. (1938). The rules of sociological method. Translated by Solovay, S. A. & Mueller, J. The Free Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar) and linguistic racism theory (Tankosić, A., & Dovchin, S. (2023). (C)overt linguistic racism: Eastern-European background immigrant women in the Australian workplace”. Ethnicities, 23(5), 726–757. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar), we argue that while the term CaLD was originally intended as ‘inclusionary othering,’ the category perpetuates monolithic othering on the basis of language and culture, masking a broad range of ethnic identities common to Australia and upholding systemic practices of subjugation such as linguistic racism as mechanisms for continued ideological, political, and social dominance. Individuals to whom this label is applied continually walk the tightrope between the access and affordances it may offer and its capacity to both highlight and erase difference. The study’s implications indicate there needs to be greater consultation with the communities involved about terms used to label and set them apart.
Article outline
  • Introduction
  • Background on Australian Migration
  • The CaLD Label
  • Theoretical underpinnings
  • Research design and methodology
  • Findings
    • Othering through labelling
      • Story 1: CaLD as a dehumanising, asymmetrical, and static super category
      • Story 2: CaLD as a tokenistic discourse
    • Othering through linguistic racism
      • Story 3: CaLD as endorsing linguistic racism
      • Story 4: CaLD as a tactic of disempowerment
  • Discussion
  • Conclusion
  • Statement on the use of AI
  • Author queries
  • References
References (53)
References
Adusei-Asante, K., & Adibi, H. (2018). The ‘culturally and linguistically diverse’ (CALD) label: A critique using African migrants as exemplar. Australasian Review of African Studies, 39(2), 74–94. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). (2018). Australia’s health 2018: Culturally and linguistically diverse populations. [URL]
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). (2022). 2021 Census: Nearly half of Australians have a parent born overseas. [URL]
Aysa-Lastra, M., & Cachón, L. (2012). Latino immigrant employment during the great recession: A comparison of the United States and Spain. Norteamérica, 71, 7–42.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Babacan, H. (2005). Challenges of inclusion: Cultural diversity, citizenship and engagement. Paper presented at the International Conference on Engaging Communities, 14–17 August, Brisbane, QLD, Australia. [URL]
Barker, M. (1981). The new racism: Conservatives and the ideology of the tribe. Junction Books.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance. The Free Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). One size fits all? What counts as quality practice in (reflexive) thematic analysis? Qualitative research in psychology, 18(3), 328–352. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Canales, M. K. (2000). Othering: Toward an understanding of difference. Advances in Nursing Science, 22(4), 16–31. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Corbett, J. (1994). A proud label: Exploring the relationship between disability politics and gay pride. Disability & Society, 9(3), 343–357. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dental Health Services Victoria: Oral health for better health (2010). Culturally and linguistically diverse communities resource kit. [URL]
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2018). Cultural and linguistic diversity (CALD) Strategy: 2018–2021. [URL]
Dobinson, T. (2013). Encountering the Asian learner: Teaching and learning experiences of postgraduate Asian learners and their lecturers in Australia and Vietnam. (Doctoral dissertation). [URL]
Durkheim, E. (1938). The rules of sociological method. Translated by Solovay, S. A. & Mueller, J. The Free Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Federation of Ethnic Communities Councils of Australia (FECCA). (2020). If we don’t count it … it doesn’t count: Towards consistent national data collection and reporting on cultural, ethnic and linguistic diversity. Australia. [URL]
Germov, J. (2014). Second opinion: An introduction to health sociology. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gordon, P., & Klug, F. (1985). New right, new racism. Searchlight Publications.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Grimmer, R. (2018). Sentenced to discrimination: Language as a weapon of state. Griffith Review, 611, 277–284. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hallam, A., Macnamara, A., Morris, B., & Spagnolo, D. (2018). Diversifying boards: Beyond tokenism. Emerging leaders in governance program 2018. [URL]
Iftikar, J. S., & Museus, S. D. (2018). On the utility of Asian critical (AsianCrit) theory in the field of education. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 31(10), 935–949. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kymlicka, W. (1995). Multicultural citizenship: A liberal theory of minority rights. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lams, L. (2021). Forging unity within diversity: A discourse-theoretical approach to nation-building politics in the Chinese and Taiwanese contexts. Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 27(1), 60–78. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lemert, E. M. (1951). Social pathology. McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lippi-Green, R. (2011). English with an accent: Language, ideology and discrimination in the US. RoutledgeGoogle Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lorig, K. R., Ritter, L. P., & Jacquez, A. (2005). Outcomes of border health Spanish/English chronic disease self-management programs. The Diabetes Educator, 31(3), 401–409. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Marcus, K., Balasubramanian, M., Short, S., & Sohn, W. (2022). Culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD): Terminology and standards in reducing healthcare inequalities. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 461, 7–9. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Sage Publications.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Maturi, J., & Munro, J. (2023). How the ‘culture’ in ‘culturally and linguistically diverse’ inhibits intersectionality in Australia: A study of domestic violence policy and services. Journal of Intercultural Studies, 44(2), 143–159. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
McLennan, W. (1999). Standards for Statistics on Cultural and Language Diversity. Australian Bureau of Statistics. [URL]
Moncrieffe, J., & Eyben, R. (Eds.). (2007). The power of labelling: How people are categorized and why it matters. Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mousaferiadis, P. (2020). Beyond CALD (Part 2): What lies behind the labels. Diversity Atlas. [URL]
Multicultural NSW (accessed June 2026). Guide: What is CaLD?. New South Wales Government. [URL]
MYAN (2026). Belonging and Inclusion. Language Matters. [URL]
Na, C. Y. & Coronel-Molina, S. M. (2026). New immigrants and multilingual linguistic landscape in Taiwan. Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Office of Multicultural Interests (OMI). (2023). CaLD definition factsheet. [URL]
Payne, R., & Keeffe, M. (2023). Advancing meaningful inclusion in the workplace: A model for avoiding tokenism ad marginalization. In C. Dogru (Ed.), Role of human resources for inclusive leadership, workplace diversity and equity in organizations (pp. 1–19). IGI Global. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pennycook, A., & Otsuji, E. (2015). Metrolingualism. Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Piller, I. (2012). Intercultural communication: An overview. In C. Bratt Paulston, S. F. Kiesling, & E. S. Rangel (Eds.), The handbook of intercultural discourse and communication. Wiley-Blackwell. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2016). Linguistic diversity and social justice: An introduction to applied sociolinguistics. Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Said, E. (1978). Orientalism: Western conceptions of the Orient. Penguin Books Limited.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sawrikar, P., & Katz, I. (2009). How useful is the term ‘culturally and linguistically diverse’ (CALD) in Australian research and policy discourse? Paper presented at the 11th Australian Social Policy Conference, 8–10 July, Sydney, Australia. [URL]
Sloss, C. J. (2024). Leveraging tokenism or ‘pulling up the ladder’: Phenomenology of Black faculty/student experiences at HWCUs. Peabody Journal of Education, 99(2), 209–221. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Starfield, S. (2015). Ethnographic research. In B. Paltridge & A. Phakiti (Eds.), Research methods in applied linguistics: A practical resource (pp. 138–152). Bloomsbury.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Stratton, J., & Ang, I. (1994). Multicultural imagined communities: Cultural difference and national identity in Australia and the USA. Continuum: The Australian Journal of Media & Culture, 8(2), 124–158. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tankosić, A., & Dovchin, S. (2023). (C)overt linguistic racism: Eastern-European background immigrant women in the Australian workplace”. Ethnicities, 23(5), 726–757. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tankosić, A., Milak, E., Steele, C., & Dobinson, T. (2024). Meeting Standards: (Re)colonial and subversive potential of AI modification. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 47(3), 366–382. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tankosić, A. (forthcoming). Challenging stereotypes and subverting the Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CaLD) label: Migrant experiences from ‘down-under’. In T. Dobinson & C. Steele (Eds.), Quiet politics in translingual contexts. Multilingual Matters.
Thomas-Olalde, O., & Velho, A. (2011). Othering and its effects — Exploring the concept. Writing postcolonial histories of intercultural education, 2(1), 27–51.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Udah, H. (2018). ‘Not by default accepted’: The African experience of othering and being othered in Australia. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 53(3), 384–400. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2019). Searching for a place to belong in a time of othering. Social Sciences, 8(11), 297–312. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Vertovec, S., & Genest, S. (2024). Super-diversity and systems thinking: Selected moments from a conversation with Steven Vertovec. Humans, 4(3), 279–283. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Waters, G. (2015). Threats, parasites and others: The visual framing of Roma migrants in the British press. London School of Economics and Political Science.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
White, R. (1985). Inventing Australia. Allen & Unwin.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue