Chapter published in:
Creole Studies – Phylogenetic Approaches
Edited by Peter Bakker, Finn Borchsenius, Carsten Levisen and Eeva Sippola
[Not in series 211] 2017
► pp. 141–174

West African languages and creoles worldwide

| Aarhus University
| Aarhus University
| Aarhus University
In creole studies, there has been a long tradition of discussing the respective contributions of African languages in the genesis of creoles spoken primarily in the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans. Creolists have often assumed that the African languages that contributed to the creation of creoles were typologically rather uniform (e.g. Singler 1988). Very few studies have compared more than a handful of languages when searching for African influences in creoles (e.g. Parkvall 2000). In this chapter, we investigate the claim that the African languages involved in the colonial settings, and hence in the creation of various creole languages, were typologically homogeneous. Moreover, we assess the extent to which a selection of proposed stable features is shared (i) between creoles with and without African influence, (ii) between creoles and West African languages known to have influenced these creoles, and finally, (iii) between creoles and their lexifiers.
Available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives (CC BY-NC-ND) 4.0 license.

For any use beyond this license, please contact the publisher at rights@benjamins.nl.

Published online: 31 May 2017
https://doi.org/10.1075/z.211.07dav
References

References

Ambouroue, O.
2007 Éléments de description de l’Orungu: Langue bantu du Gabon (B11b). PhD dissertation, Université libre de Bruxelles.Google Scholar
Bailey, C. J. & Maroldt, K.
1977 The French lineage of English. In Langues en contact – Pidgins – Creoles, J. M. Meisel (ed.), 21–53. Tübingen: Gunter Narr.Google Scholar
Bakker, P.
n.d. Grammatical sketch of Plains Indian Sign Language. Ms, Aarhus University.
Bakker, P., Daval-Markussen, A., Parkvall, M. & Plag, I.
2011 Creoles are typologically distinct from non-creoles. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 26(1): 5–42. Reprinted in 2013 in P. Bhatt & T. Veenstra (eds), Creole Languages and Linguistic Typology [Benjamins Current Topics 57], 9–45. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Barbosa, A. L.
1956 Curso de Tupi antigo: Gramática, Exercícios, Textos. Rio de Janeiro: Livraria São José.Google Scholar
Bartens, A. & Baker, P.
(eds) 2012 Black Through White. African words and calques which survived slavery in Creoles and transplanted European languages. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
Baxter, A. N.
1988 A grammar of Kristang (Malacca Creole Portuguese) [Pacific Linguistics Series B 65]. Canberra: Australian National University.Google Scholar
Bennett, W. G., Akinlabi A., & Connell, B.
2012 Two subject asymmetries in Defaka focus constructions. In Proceedings of the 29th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics, J. Choi, E. A. Hogue, J. Punske, D. Tat, J. Schertz & A. Trueman (eds), 294–302. Somerville MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Google Scholar
Bergman, E. M.
2002 Spoken Sudanese Arabic: Grammar, Dialogues, and Glossary. Springfield VA: Dunwoody.Google Scholar
Bergvall, V. L.
1987 Focus in Kikuyu and Universal Grammar. PhD dissertation, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Bøegh, K. F., Daval-Markussen, A., & Bakker, P.
2016 A phylogenetic analysis of stable structural features in West African languages. Studies in African Linguistics 45(1–2): 61–94.Google Scholar
Bole-Richard, R.
1983 Ega. In Atlas des langues Kwa de Côte d’Ivoire, Vol. 1, G. Hérault (ed.), 359–401. Abidjan: ILA.Google Scholar
Boruah, B. K.
1993 Nagamese: The Language of Nagaland. New Delhi: Mittal Publications.Google Scholar
Brauner, S.
1974 Lehrbuch des Bambara. Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie.Google Scholar
Bryant, D. & Moulton, V.
2004 NeighborNet, an agglomerative method for the construction of phylogenetic networks. Molecular Biology and Evolution 21(2): 255–265. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, L.
2003 Chapter 4. How to show languages are related: Methods for distant genetic relationship. In The Handbook of Historical Linguistics, B. D. Joseph & R. D. Janda (eds), 262–282. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, R.
1994 A grammar of Supyire [Mouton Grammar Library 14]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Chaudenson, R.
1992 Des îles, des hommes, des langues. Essai sur la créolisation linguistique et culturelle. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
Childs, G. T.
1988 The Phonology and Morphology of Kisi. PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Clements, J. C.
1996 The Genesis of a Language: The Formation and Development of Korlai Portuguese [Creole Language Library 16]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Collins, J. T.
1980 Ambonese Malay and Creolization Theory. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa Pustaka.Google Scholar
Cunningham, I. A. E.
1970 A Syntactic Analysis of Sea Islands Creole (“Gullah”). PhD dissertation, The University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Cysouw, M., Albu, M. & Dress, A.
2008 Analyzing feature consistency using dissimilarity matrices. STUF – Language Typology and Universals 61(3): 263–279. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
da Cruz, A.
2011 Fonologia e gramática do Nheengatú: A língua geral falada pelos povos Baré, Warekena e Baniwa. PhD dissertation, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.Google Scholar
da Silva, B. L.
1984 O dialecto crioulo de Cabo Verde. Lisboa: Imprenta Nacional-Casa da Moeda.Google Scholar
de Jong, J. P. & de Josselin, B.
1926 Het huidige Negerhollandsch. Teksten en woordenlijst. Amsterdam: Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen.Google Scholar
Dediu, D. & Cysouw, M.
2013 Some structural aspects of language are more stable than others: A comparison of seven methods. PLoS ONE 8(1): e55009. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Dereau, L.
1955 Cours de Kikongo. Namur: Wesmael-Charlier.Google Scholar
Dimmendaal, G. J.
2011 Historical Linguistics and the Comparative Study of African languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Doke, C. M.
1927 Textbook of Zulu grammar, 6th edn. Johannesburg: Maskew Miller Longman.Google Scholar
Dolgopolsky, A.
1998 The Nostratic Macrofamily and Linguistic Paleontology. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.Google Scholar
Doneux, J. L.
1968 Esquisse grammaticale du Dan [Documents linguistiques 15]. Dakar: Departement de Linguistique Générale et Linguistique Africaine de la Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines.Google Scholar
Dryer, M. S. & Haspelmath, M.
(eds) 2013 The World Atlas of Language Structures Online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. http://​wals​.info/ (4 June 2015).
Duthie, A. S.
1996 Introducing Ewe Linguistic Patterns. Accra: Ghana Universities Press.Google Scholar
Dutton, T. E.
1973 Conversational New Guinea Pidgin [Pacific Linguistics Series D 12]. Canberra: Australian National University.Google Scholar
Dutton, T. E. & Voorhoeve, C. L.
1975 Beginning Hiri Motu [Pacific Linguistics Series D 24]. Canberra: Australian National University.Google Scholar
Ehrhart, S.
1993 Le créole français de St-Louis (le tayo) en Nouvelle-Calédonie [Kreolische Bibliothek Band 10]. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.Google Scholar
Emenanjo, E. N.
1987 Elements of Modern Igbo Grammar: A Descriptive Approach. Ibadan: OUP.Google Scholar
Essono, J.-J.
1994 Description synchronique de l’ewondo, Bantu (A72a) du Cameroun: Phonologie, morphologie, syntaxe. PhD dissertation, Université de la Sorbonne nouvelle, Paris III.Google Scholar
Faraclas, N.
1996 Nigerian Pidgin [Descriptive Grammars Series]. London: Routledge. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Farquharson, J. & Baker, P.
2012 African Words in Jamaican Creole. In Bartens & Baker (eds), 155–168.Google Scholar
Forman, M. L.
1972 Zamboangueño Texts with Grammatical Analysis: A Study of Philippine Creole Spanish. PhD dissertation, Cornell University.Google Scholar
Fortune, G.
1955 An Analytical Grammar of Shona. London: Longmans, Green & Co.Google Scholar
Funk, H. E.
1953 The French Creole Dialect of Martinique: Its Historical Background, Vocabulary, Syntax, Proverbs and Literature with a Glossary. PhD dissertation, The University of Virginia.Google Scholar
Funnell, B. J.
2004 A Contrastive Analysis of Two Standardised Varieties of Sena. MA thesis, University of South Africa, Pretoria.Google Scholar
Goyette, S.
2000 The Emergence of the Romance Languages from Latin: A Case for Creolization Effects. PhD dissertation, Ottawa University.Google Scholar
Greenberg, J. H.
1963 The Languages of Africa. Bloomington IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Grollemund, R.
2006 Les Okandé du Gabon, locuteurs d’une langue en danger (langue bantoue du groupe B 30) – Langue et culture. MA thesis, Université Lumière Lyon 2.Google Scholar
Guthrie, M.
1948 The Classification of the Bantu Languages. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Haspelmath, M.
2001 The European linguistic area: Standard Average European. In Language Typology and Language Universals [Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikations-wissenschaft, Vol. 20.2], M. Haspelmath, E. König, W. Oesterreicher & W. Raible (eds), 1492–1510. Berlin: De Gruyter. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Heath, J.
2005 A Grammar of Jamsay. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Heine, B.
1975 Language typology and convergence areas in Africa. Linguistics 144: 27–47.Google Scholar
1977 A Typology of African Languages Based on the Order of Meaningful Elements [Kölner Beiträge zur Afrikanistik 4]. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.Google Scholar
Heine, B. & Nurse, D.
(eds) 2008 A Linguistic Geography of Africa. Cambridge: CUP.Google Scholar
Hewson, J.
2010 Doyayo. In Verbal Categories in Niger-Congo Languages, D. Nurse, S. Rose & J. Hewson (eds). http://​www​.mun​.ca​/linguistics​/nico/ (2 February 2015).
Hock, H. H. & Joseph, B. D.
2009 Language History, Language Change, and Language Relationship. An Introduction to Historical and Comparative Linguistics. Berlin: De Gruyter. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Holm, J.
1988 Pidgins and Creoles, Vol. 1. Cambridge: CUP.Google Scholar
Hudu, F.
2014 What is the phonological word in Dagbani? A Positional faithfulness account. Ghana Journal of Linguistics 3(1): 1–44. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Huson, D. H. & Bryant, D.
2006 Application of phylogenetic networks in evolutionary studies. Molecular Biology and Evolution 23: 254–267. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hyman, L. M. & Olawsky, K.
2004 Dagbani verb tonology. In Trends in African Linguistics 4, C. Githiora, H. Littlefield & V. Manfredi (eds), 97–108. Trenton NJ: Africa World Press.Google Scholar
Jackson, K. D.
1990 Sing Without Shame: Oral Traditions in Indo-Portuguese Creole Verse: With Transcription and Analysis [Creole Language Library 5]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Jenewari, C. E. W.
1983 Defaka: Ijo’s closest linguistic relative. In Current Approaches to African Linguistics 1, I. R. Dirhoff (ed.), 85–111. Dordrecht: Foris.Google Scholar
Kamarah, S. U.
2007 A Descriptive Grammar of KʌThemnɛ (Temne). Munich: Lincom.Google Scholar
Kandybowicz, J.
2008 The Grammar of Repetition: Nupe Grammar at the Syntax – Phonology Interface [Linguistik Aktuell/Linguistics Today 136]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kawu, A. N.
2002 Variation in Nupe Phonology and Morphology. PhD dissertation, Rutgers University.Google Scholar
Kihm, A.
1994 Kriyol Syntax: The Portuguese-based Creole Language of Guinea-Bissau [Creole Language Library 14]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
2011 Substrate influences in Kriyol: Guinea-Bissau and Casamance Portuguese-related Creole. In Lefebvre (ed.), 81–103.Google Scholar
Koelle, S. W.
1854 Polyglotta Africana, or a Comparative Vocabulary of Nearly Three Hundred Words and Phrases, in More Than One Hundred Distinct African Languages. London: Church Missionary House.Google Scholar
Kotey, P. F. A.
1969 Syntactic Aspects of the Gã Nominal Phrase. PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Kouwenberg, S.
1994 A Grammar of Berbice Dutch Creole. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
2012 The Ijo-derived lexicon of Berbice Dutch Creole: An a-typical case of African lexical influence. In Bartens & Baker (eds), 135–154.Google Scholar
Krämer, P.
2013 Vom Instinkt zum Bioprogram, von der Mischung zum Hybrid. Historische und gegenwärtige Vorstellungen von Kreolisierung als Wandelprozess der Sprache. In Kreolisierung Revisited. Debatten um ein weltweites Kulturkonzept, G. Müller & N. Ueckmann (eds), 43–63. Bielefeld: Transcript. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kropp-Dakubu, M. E.
2006 Parlons Gã: Langue et culture d’Accra. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
Lax, B. M.
1996 The Verbal System of Kigiryama. PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison.Google Scholar
Lefebvre, C.
1998 Creole Genesis and the Acquisition of Grammar: The Case of Haitian creole. Cambridge: CUP.Google Scholar
(ed) 2011 Creoles, their Substrates, and Language Typology [Typological Studies in Language 95]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Lefebvre, C. & Brousseau, A.-M.
2002 A Grammar of Fongbe. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Lister-Turner, R. & Clark, J. B.
1931 A Grammar of the Motu Language of Papua. Sydney: A. H. Pettifer.Google Scholar
Maslova, E. S.
2004 Динамика типологических распределений и стабильность языковых типов (Dynamics of typological distributions and stability of language types). Вопросы языкознания 5: 3–16.Google Scholar
Maurer, P.
1995 L’angolar. Un créole afro-portugais parlé à São Tomé. Notes de grammaire, textes, vocabulaires [Kreolische Bibliothek Band 16]. Hamburg: Helmut Buske.Google Scholar
2009 Principense: Grammar, Texts, and Vocabulary of the Afro-Portuguese Creole of the Island of Príncipe, Gulf of Guinea. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
2011 The Former Portuguese Creole of Batavia and Tugu (Indonesia). London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
McPherson, L.
2010 A Grammar of Tommo So. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
McWhorter, J.
1998 Identifying the creole prototype. Vindicating a typological class. Language 74(4): 788–818. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
McWhorter, J. & Good, J.
2012 A Grammar of Saramaccan Creole. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Morrison, M. E.
2011 A Reference Grammar of Bena. PhD dissertation, University of Texas at Austin.Google Scholar
Mufwene, S. S.
1986 The founder principle in creole genesis. Diachronica 13(1): 83–134. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
2008 Language Evolution: Contact, Competition and Change. London: Continuum.Google Scholar
Mugane, J. M.
1997 A Paradigmatic Grammar og Gĩkũyũ [Stanford Monographs in African Languages]. Stanford CA: CSLI.Google Scholar
Mühlhäusler, P.
1997 Pidgin and Creole Linguistics, expanded and revised edn. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
Munteanu, D.
1991 El Papiamento, origen, evolución y estructura. Bochum: Universitätsverlag Brockmeyer.Google Scholar
Neumann, I.
1985 Le créole de Breaux Bridge, Louisiane [Kreolische Bibliothek Band 7]. Hamburg: Helmut Buske.Google Scholar
Ngonyani, D.
2003 A Grammar of Chingoni. Munich: Lincom.Google Scholar
Nikiema, N.
2001 Mooré. In Facts About the World’s Languages, An Encyclopedia of the World’s Languages: Past and Present, J. Garry & C. Rubino (eds), 492–496. New York NY: HW Wilson.Google Scholar
Osam, E. K. A.
1994 Aspects of Akan Grammar – A Functional Perspective. PhD dissertation, University of Oregon.Google Scholar
Pagel, M., Atkinson, Q. D., Calude, A. S. & Meade, A.
2013 Ultraconserved words point to deep language ancestry across Eurasia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110(21): 8471–8476. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Parkvall, M.
2000 Out of Africa. African Influences in Atlantic Creoles. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
2008 Which parts of language are the most stable? STUF – Language Typology and Universals 61(3): 234–250. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Pasch, H.
1997 Sango. In Contact Languages: A Wider Perspective [Creole Language Library 17], S. G. Thomason (ed), 209–270. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Patrick, P. L.
2007 Jamaican Patwa (Creole English). In Comparative Creole Syntax, J. Holm & P. L. Patrick (eds), 127–152. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
Peace Corps, Sierra Leone
1985 Krio Language Manual.Google Scholar
Pichl, W.
1957 Die Sprache der Wolof in Senegambien. PhD dissertation, Universität Wien.Google Scholar
Police-Michel, D., Carpooran, A. & Florigny, G.
2012 Gramer Kreol Morisien. Phoenix: Akademi Kreol Morisien.Google Scholar
Prescod, P.
2004 A Grammatical Description of the Noun Phrase in the English-lexified Creole of St Vincent and the Grenadines. PhD dissertation, Université Paris III – Sorbonne Nouvelle.Google Scholar
Redden, J. E.
1979 A Descriptive Grammar of Ewondo [Occasional Papers on Linguistics 4]. Carbondale IL: Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Department of Linguistics.Google Scholar
Rennison, J. R.
1997 Koromfe. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Rountree, S. C. & Glock, N.
1982 Saramaccan for Beginners (A Pedagogical Grammar of the Saramaccan Language). Paramaribo: Summer Institute of Linguistics.Google Scholar
Rowland-Oke, M.
2003 Description systématique de la langue Obolo-Andoni (Nigéria). Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
Saint Jacques Fauquenoy, M.
1972 Analyse structurale du créole guyanais. Paris: Klincksieck.Google Scholar
Salffner, S.
2004 Learning Ega: A linguistic Frame of Reference for Primers for Endangered Languages. MA thesis, Universität Bielefeld.Google Scholar
Sandefur, J. R.
1979 An Australian Creole in the Northern Territory: A Description of Ngukurr-Bamyili Dialects, Part 1 [Work Papers of SIL-AAB Series B 3]. Darwin: Summer Institute of Linguistics.Google Scholar
Sanderson, M.
1922 A Yao Grammar, 2nd edn. New York NY: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge; The Macmillan Company.Google Scholar
Sands, B.
2009 Africa’s linguistic diversity. Language and Linguistics Compass 3(2): 559–580. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Santandrea, S.
1964 A note on Kare grammar. Sudan Notes and Records 45: 103–112.Google Scholar
Sapir, D. J.
1965 A Grammar of Diola-Fogny: A Language Spoken in the Basse-Casamance Region of Senegal [West African Language Monographs 3]. Cambridge: CUP.Google Scholar
Schadeberg, T. C.
1990 A Sketch of Umbundu [Grammatische Analysen Afrikanischer Sprachen 1]. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.Google Scholar
Schwegler, A.
1998 Palenquero. In América negra: Panorámica actual de los estudios lingüísticos sobre variedades criollas y afrohispanas, M. Perl & A. Schwegler (eds), 220–291. Frankfurt & Madrid: Vervuert & Iberoamericana.Google Scholar
Segorbe, A. Z.
2007 Gramática descriptiva del fá d’ambô. (Self-published).Google Scholar
Shimizu, K.
1983 The Zing Dialect of Mumuye: A Descriptive Grammar. Hamburg: Helmut BuskeGoogle Scholar
Singler, J. V.
1988 The homogeneity of the substrate as a factor in pidgin/creole genesis. Language 64: 27–51. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Sippola, E.
2011 Una gramática descriptiva del Chabacano de Ternate. Helsinki: Unigrafia.Google Scholar
Smith, N. S. H., Robertson, I. & Williamson, K.
1987 The Ịjọ element in Berbice Dutch. Language in Society 16(1): 49–90. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Staudacher-Valliamée, G.
2004 Grammaire du créole réunionnais. Paris: Sedes.Google Scholar
Stennes, L. H.
1967 A Reference Grammar of Adamawa Fulani. East Lansing MI: African Studies Center, Michigan State University.Google Scholar
Thomas, E.
1978 A Grammatical Description of the Engenni Language. Dallas TX: SIL.Google Scholar
Thomason, S. G. & Kaufman, T.
1988 Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Tobler, S. J.
1983 The Grammar of Karipúna Creole [Série Lingüística 10]. Brasília: Summer Institute of Linguistics.Google Scholar
Toronzoni, N.-N. T. N.
1989 Description du Ngbandi. PhD dissertation, Université Libre de Bruxelles.Google Scholar
Una, F. X.
1900 Efik language. UYO: Modern Business Press.Google Scholar
Valdman, A.
1988 Ann pale Kreyol: An Introductory Course in Haitian Creole. Bloomington IN: Indiana University.Google Scholar
van der Wal, G. J.
2009 Word Order and Information Structure in Makhuwa – Enahara. PhD dissertation, Universiteit Leiden.Google Scholar
van Minde, D.
1997 Malayu Ambong: Phonology, Morphology, Syntax. Leiden: Research School of Asian, African and Amerindian Studies (CNWS), Universiteit Leiden.Google Scholar
Velupillai, V.
2003 Hawai’i Creole English. A Typological Analysis of the Tense-Mood-Aspect System. New York NY: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Versteegh, K.
1984 Pidginization and Creolization: The Case of Arabic [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 33]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Vinson, J.
1884 Créoles (linguistique). In Dictionnaire des sciences anthropologiques, L.-A. Bertillon, G. de Mortillet & C. Letourneau (eds), 345–347. Paris: Doin.Google Scholar
Volker, C.
1983 An Introduction to Rabaul Creole German (Unserdeutsch). MA thesis, University of Queensland.Google Scholar
Watson, R. L. & Ola, L. B.
1984 Juba Arabic for Beginners. Juba: Summer Institute of Linguistics.Google Scholar
Wellens, I.
2005 The Nubi Language of Uganda: An Arabic Creole in Africa. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Welmers, W. E.
1973 African Language Structures. Los Angeles CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
1976 A Grammar of Vai. Berkeley CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Westermann, D. H.
1927 Die westlichen Sudansprachen und ihre Beziehungen zum Bantu. Berlin: De Gruyter. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Whorf, B. L.
1941 The relation of habitual thought and behavior to language. In Language, culture, and personality: Essays in Memory of Edward Sapir, L. Spier, A. I. Hallowell & S. S. Newman (eds), 75–93. Menasha WI: Sapir Memorial Publication Fund.Google Scholar
Wichmann, S. & Holman, E. W.
2009 Assessing Temporal Stability for Linguistic Typological Features. Munich: Lincom.Google Scholar
Williamson, K.
1965 A Grammar of the Kolokuma Dialect of Ijo. Cambridge: CUP.Google Scholar
Williamson, K. & Blench, R.
2000 Niger-Congo. In African Languages – An Introduction, B. Heine & D. Nurse (eds), 11–42. Cambridge: CUP.Google Scholar
Wolff, H.
1959 Subsystem typologies and area linguistics. Anthropological Linguistics 1(7): 1–88.Google Scholar
Yakpo, K.
2009 A Grammar of Pichi. Berlin: Isimu Media.Google Scholar
Zenk, H.
2012 Chinuk Wawa kakwa nsayka ulman-tilixam ɬaska munk-kəmtəks nsayka / Chinuk Wawa as our Elders Teach us to Speak it. Grand Ronde OR: Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon and the University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Cited by

Cited by 3 other publications

Bakker, Peter
2017. Reply to Enoch Aboh’s rejoinder to my article on his book ‘The emergence of hybrid grammars’. <i>WORD</i> 63:3 ► pp. 223 ff. Crossref logo
Bakker, Peter
2020.  In The Palgrave Handbook of Romani Language and Linguistics, ► pp. 353 ff. Crossref logo
Yakpo, Kofi
2019. Inheritance, contact, convergence. English World-Wide. A Journal of Varieties of English 40:2 ► pp. 202 ff. Crossref logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 06 may 2021. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.