Index

• agency 3, 7, 220, 224, 233 ; see also micro level

• Ahlqvist, August 142, 143, 148, 149–150, 149n13

• audience design 27, 41, 46, 209

• Bess of Hardwick Corpus 10, 189, 194

• Bluestocking Corpus 7, 10, 109, 190, 193, 195, 200, 205–209

• Bolhuis, Lambertus van (1741–1826) 165n7, 166, 167

• Brown Corpus 25, 85

• Cocks Corpus 10, 190

• codifying see standardization

• Collection of Nineteenth-Century Grammars (CNG) 277, 277n1, 279–283, 300–303

• community 3–4, 5, 12, 154, 226, 251, 265, 266–267, 304, 305–306
  • small community 93, 145, 258
  • sociolect 191n2

• complexity 23, 27–29, 32, 37

• conflict 109–110, 113, 116, 117–119, 124, 242

• Construction Grammar 12, 217–237

• corpus 5–10, 23–25, 29–31, 54, 61, 66–67, 66n18, 66n19, 83–91, 105, 109–110, 157–158, 163–164, 168–171, 181–184, 187–190, 189n1, 218, 222, 227, 262, 278, 308
  • annotation 6, 25, 30–31, 45–46, 59, 59n8, 62n12, 188
  • compilation 8–9, 188
  • search tools 54, 60, 60n10, 62–65, 62n12, 65n16, 72n26
  • POS tagging 24–25, 30–31, 47, 51

• corpus linguistics 5–7, 85, 91, 187, 276–277

• Corpus of Early English Correspondence (CEEC) 8, 10, 29–30, 188–189, 189n1, 194n4, 194n5, 208–209
  • Corpus of Early English Correspondence Extension (CEECE) 7, 109–110, 189n1
  • Parsed Corpus of Early English Correspondence (PCEEC) 6, 24, 29–30
  • ReCEEC 31, 51

• Corpus of Nineteenth-Century Scottish Correspondence 9

• Corpus of Scottish Correspondence 10

• Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) 110

• cultural literacy see literacy

• data
  • bad-data problem 5, 47, 305
  • big data 1, 6, 7, 13, 304–305, 316, 320
  • corpora 6, 8, 10, 13–14, 25–27, 54, 66, 84, 222, 226, 250, 254–258, 261–262, 263–264, 266
  • historical corpora 13, 23, 54, 84, 105, 181, 187
  • manuscripts 4, 187–188, 189–193, 208–211
  • rich data 5–6, 7, 304–305, 323
  • un- or under-explored data 2, 7–10, 12

• definiteness 157–158, 164, 172–175, 181

• dialect 12–13, 132–133, 138, 145, 147–150, 148n12, 160–162, 239, 242–243
  • concentration 13, 241, 258–259, 269
  • dissipation 13, 241, 259, 268
  • domicile 30, 188, 194, 194n5, 197–199, 208
  • East Anglia 194, 194n5, 197–198
  • London 70n25, 72n27, 191n2, 195, 197–198, 200–201, 203, 207–208
  • North England 197
  • obsolescence 241–242, 247, 259, 268–269
  • recession 12, 241, 266
  • rural areas 10, 132–133, 135, 169–171, 175–177, 181–182, 239–241, 247–248, 265, 269, 307

• digital humanities 1–2, 187, 307

• discord 7, 109–127

• discourse 7, 13, 27, 28, 55–56, 56–58, 61, 70, 71, 79, 83–84, 85–91, 104–105, 116–117, 141, 158, 165, 182–183, 228, 276–277, 286, 288, 293–295

• dominant form 181, 193, 195, 196–198, 202, 204, 209–210

• Dutch 9, 13, 157–168, 180–184

• Early English Books Online (EEBO) 53–54, 54n1, 55–56, 60–61, 63n12, 66, 75, 210
  • EEBO-TCP 6, 53–55, 58–60, 61–63, 62n12, 65–66, 68–69, 71–74, 72n26, 77–80, 209–210

• Early Modern 29, 53–54, 61, 77–78, 90, 204

• education 13, 134–135, 138, 158, 195, 253–254, 256–258, 264–265, 276, 278, 291–295

• ego-documents 3–4, 168–170, 169n11, 178–179, 182–183

• eighteenth century 7, 109–114, 158–159, 165–168, 205–208

• Eighteenth Century Collections Online (ECCO) 58

• Elzevier, Kornelis (1717–1761) 165n7

• emigration 93, 98 ; see also historical events

• English
  • American English 13, 25, 231, 249n7, 250n8, 275–277, 307–308
  • Australian English 231
  • British English 10, 13, 25, 232–233, 275–277
  • Canadian English 232–233, 239–240, 241
  • Early Modern English 53–60, 79–80, 160, 187, 190–191, 191n2, 307
  • English as a lingua franca (ELF) 305, 307
  • Filipino English 231–233
  • Ghanaian English 232–233
  • Hong Kong English 232–233
  • Irish English 242–243, 248–249, 252n10, 269
  • Late Modern English 187, 190
  • Malaysian English 231–233
  • New Englishes 232–234
  • nineteenth-century English 13, 275–302
  • non-native English 14, 304
  • nonstandard English 13, 275, 276–277
  • Ottawa Valley English 12, 239
  • Present-day English 26–27, 41
  • Sri Lanka English 231
  • Tanzania English 231
  • varieties of English 217, 233–234, 239, 275–276, 280

• epithets in grammars 280–281, 292–294
  • careless 281, 291–294
  • error 13, 280–281, 289, 291–294
  • false 279n2, 291–294
  • improper 281, 289, 291–293
  • incorrect 280, 288–289, 291–294
  • ungrammatical 224, 293
  see also grammars

• fifteenth century 2, 9, 192–193, 196, 198, 201–202, 203–204, 209

• Finnish 9, 15, 132–135, 133n3, 137–138, 139, 307
  • Early Modern Finnish 148

• form 4, 9, 12–13, 57–58, 84, 132–133, 133n3, 138–154, 152n4, 159–165, 162n5, 163n6, 166n8, 167, 171–184, 191–211, 217, 227, 234, 241–242, 244–245, 249–252, 253n12, 258–263, 268, 278, 283n4, 284–292, 290n6

• Freiburg-LOB Corpus of British English (F-LOB) 25–26

• function 24, 32, 36, 162, 217–219, 228–233

• gender 41, 45–46, 115, 170–171, 177–182, 202–203, 206–208
  • gendered styles 26–27, 38–46
  see also sex

• genre 4, 8–10, 23–25, 26–27, 32, 34–38, 46, 64–66, 144, 157–158, 201, 230, 233
  • correspondence 3, 6, 9, 8–10, 24–25, 26–30, 38–39, 45–46, 109–110, 124–125, 168, 170, 178–180, 182–183, 188–191, 222
  • diary 3, 9, 168–170, 169n11, 178–180, 182–183
  • domestic news 134–135
  • genre effects 164
  • genre evolution 6, 23, 24
  • genre variation 23–24, 157, 178–180
  • liturgy 72
  • manuscript 4, 169, 187–189, 204–205, 208–211
  • newspapers 10, 133–139, 143–145, 153, 168–169, 178–180, 182–183
  • news text 134–135, 137, 140–141
  • Parliamentary debates 83–84, 104–105
  • polemical discourse 72
  • private writing 10, 179, 187–188, 204, 211
  • public writing 46, 134, 187
  • religious literature 72
  • rural letters 133–139, 153
  • spoken genres 26
  • travelogue 9, 168–169, 169n11, 170–171, 178–180, 183
  • written genres 25–26, 28–29

• Germanic 159–161, 180

• Going Dutch Corpus 9, 168–170, 182

• grammars 138, 142–143, 148, 153, 165–168, 277, 277n1, 279, 279n2, 280, 283, 285n5, 288, 290, 300–302
  • descriptive 132, 138, 143, 153
  • grammar writing 276–277
  • meta-level discussion 133–139, 145–147
  • metalinguistic discourse 13, 182, 276
  • prescriptive 9, 132, 138, 153, 168, 275–277, 294–295
  • prescriptivism 13, 157, 276–277, 295
  • social evaluation 13, 291–294
  see also epithets in grammars

• Haes, Frans de (1658–1690) 165

• Hansard Corpus 7, 10, 83, 85–86, 85n3, 91–92

• Helsinki Corpus of English Texts 8

• historical discourse analysis 5, 7, 61, 84

• historical events 85, 89–90 ; see also emigration

• Historical Thesaurus of English 6, 54n2, 58, 79

• Huydecoper, Balthazar (1695–1778) 165–166

• ideology 70, 111, 134
  • ideological negotiation 131
  • language ideology 133, 158
  • language planning 132–133, 134, 138–139, 139–154, 158, 168–169, 184
  • language policy 159, 168
  • nationalism 10, 97–98, 134, 157–158
  • (linguistic) norms 13, 57, 144, 157–158, 165–168, 182, 204, 207, 306
  • shibboleth 276–277, 280

• idiolect 190, 192–193, 194–195, 197, 202–204, 209, 211, 231

• individual 3, 5–7, 11, 32, 47, 109, 112–113, 124, 220–221, 225

• informational maximalism 4, 7, 12, 15, 218, 225, 234

• involved text production 25, 45 ; see also style of writing

• Ireland 89, 91–93, 97–100, 100n31, 104–105, 247

• Irish ethnicity 242–243

• irony 118, 123

• Kate, Lambert ten (1674–1731) 165–166, 183

• knowledge of language 217, 223, 224–225

• Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen Corpus (LOB) 25–26, 85

• language change 3–4, 10, 13, 25, 47, 54–55, 133, 168, 195, 207, 211, 218, 221–223, 241–242, 247–248, 258
  • age-grading 12, 242, 265–267
  • change from above 164, 203
  • change from below 140–145
  • change in discourse 84, 91
  • colloquialization 6, 24–25, 26, 27, 28–29, 32–34, 38–46 ; see also style of writing
  • diffusion 3–4, 164, 303–304, 306–308, 316
  • dissipation 13, 241, 259, 268
  • dynamicity 84, 220, 225
  • generational change 204–205, 266
  • incipient change 180, 204
  • lexical diffusion 142–144
  • lexicalization 141n7
  • lexicalization pressure 61
  • lifespan change 242, 265–267
  • long term change 97–104
  • relativization 157–158, 159–161, 164–168, 180–184
  • semasiological change 54
  • socio-cultural embedding 114–115, 259
  • speaker-internal processes 12
  • specialization (of a morphological form) 268
  • stability 86–87, 176, 181
  • transmission 38, 268

• language choice 305, 320

• language use 10, 11, 12, 26, 80, 133, 139–145, 153, 158–159, 173, 182–184, 219–220, 225, 227, 266, 275

• Latin 59, 62, 74, 77, 162n4, 162n5, 166, 278

• layered simultaneity 3–5, 7, 14–15

• literacy 26, 134, 134n4, 204
  • cultural literacy 53, 71, 75
  • teaching of literacy 134, 204

• Low Countries 158, 170, 170n13

• macro level 3, 187, 197, 204, 226–227, 233, 307

• methods
  • aggregated data 222–223
  • bottom-up approach 6, 54–56, 80
  • close reading 6, 7, 47, 56–57, 61, 67–71, 79, 97, 116
  • collostructional analysis 55, 222
  • computational 1–2, 24, 31–32, 56, 70, 84, 87–91, 305
  • distant reading 53, 71, 78
  • envelope of variation 84
  • exploratory data analysis 31
  • keyword 7, 53–55, 110, 114–116, 124
  • logistic regression 254–258, 263–267
  • low point in data 87–90, 91–105, 257–258
  • low token count 192, 194, 197–199, 262
  • Meaning Fluctuation Analysis 7, 83–84, 85n3, 87–91, 97, 98, 104–105
  • multivariate analysis 26, 222–223, 257n16
  • non-aggregated data 222
  • Pointwise Mutual Information value (PMI) 59–60, 60n9, 66–67, 71–78
  • ratio variable 303, 304, 308, 310–311, 314, 320
  • sampling unit 88
  • sparklines 7, 83–84, 91, 97, 105
  • statistical analysis 66–67, 70, 254–259, 262–267
  • token 59, 59n6, 62, 65n16, 170, 174, 194, 231–232, 250, 254n13, 257n15, 257n16, 260–262, 262n18
  • trend study 12, 239, 245–246, 266–267
  • visualization 5–6, 31–32, 47, 54–55, 83–84, 88–89, 91, 309–314, 318, 321–323
  • window 59–60, 59n7, 60n9, 70, 72–74, 76, 86–88, 100–105

• micro level 3, 223, 226–227, 323 ; see also agency

• Moonen, Arnold (1644–1711) 165n7

• morphology
  • consonant stem 139, 141–145, 144n9
  • contracted nouns 145–151
  • essive case 140–145
  • illative case 145–153
  • morphological variation 139, 144–145, 147, 154
  • nominal morphology 139–140
  • preterite come 12, 241, 259–269
  • singular was 285–290
  • verbal -s 12, 241, 248–259, 249n6, 249n7, 253n12, 257n16, 258n17, 261, 267–269
  • vowel stem 139, 141–145, 144n9
  • zero adverbs 275, 283n4, 284

• morphosyntax 275

• multidisciplinary approaches 4, 5–6, 7, 11, 14–15

• Netherlands 158, 169

• nineteenth century 8, 9, 13, 97–100, 132, 132n2, 134–135, 137–139, 144–145, 150, 153–154, 158–159, 168, 171–180, 276–277

• Nordic Tweet Stream (NTS) 303, 308–310, 316

• orthographic word 57, 57n4, 58

• orthography seespelling

• Oxford English Dictionary (OED) 58

• Palm, Kornelis van der (1730–1789) 165n7

• part-of-speech frequencies 6, 23, 25–27, 33, 39–40, 43

• patterns of interaction 223

• power 113, 122, 137, 189

• regional difference see dialect

• regional variation see dialect

• register variation 10, 134, 166, 183, 221
  • register effects 164

• relative pronoun 26, 157–158, 159, 161–163, 163–165, 165–166, 171–180, 180–184, 244, 257n15 ; see also syntax, relative clause

• sarcasm 118, 230

• satire 112, 113

• semantics
  • ambiguity 197, 285
  • antonymy 56
  • collocations 7, 55, 86–88, 91, 92, 94–97, 98, 100–104, 104–105, 114
  • concepts 6, 53, 54–55, 56–58, 61, 66, 69–71, 80, 124
  • conceptual change 6, 53, 55, 71–78
  • constant meaning 57, 70
  • contingent meaning 57
  • contingent polysemy 70
  • co-occurrence cluster 57–58, 57n4, 61, 67, 68, 71
  • discursive concept 6, 56–58, 57n4, 61, 66, 67–71, 80
  • discursive context 55, 69, 70, 71
  • discursive polysemy 55, 66–71
  • distributional semantics 53
  • emotive terms 97
  • historical semantics 5, 6, 53, 54
  • hyponymy 56
  • onomasiological concept 54, 56, 66–67, 68–70
  • polysemy 55, 64–65, 66, 69n23, 70
  • socio-cultural terminology 109, 114
  • synonymy 56, 66–67
  • word sense 55, 56, 58, 61, 69n23

• seventeenth century 25, 35–36, 39, 42–45, 62–63, 65, 118, 160, 162, 170n12, 190, 192–193, 195, 197–198, 198–201, 202–204, 204–205, 210

• Sewel, Willem (1654–1720) 165n7

• sex 27, 256, 258, 264, 265, 306 ; see also gender

• Siegenbeek, Matthijs (1774–1854) 158

• sixteenth century 142, 162, 189, 191n2, 192–194, 196–199, 201–205, 210, 282, 283n4

• social hierarchy see social status

• social identity 73, 265, 310

• social network 3, 303–304, 305–307, 314, 316
  • followers 305, 308, 309–310, 311–322
  • friends 305, 308, 309–310, 311–321
  • weak ties 303, 305, 306–307, 312–313, 316, 323

• social role 27, 30, 41

• social status
  • blue collar 253, 256–258, 264–265
  • clergy 30, 194n4
  • eighteenth-century gentry 109, 110, 114–115, 116, 190
  • gentry 23, 30, 38–39, 45–46, 194n4, 278
  • lower ranks 9, 10, 194, 194n4
  • merchants 30, 190, 192, 194n4, 201, 207
  • middle ranks 194, 194n4, 200, 202–203, 207
  • negotiating status 113
  • nobility 30, 114–115, 194n4, 199
  • occupation 253, 256–258, 264–265, 268
  • other non-gentry 30, 38–39, 194n4
  • professionals 30, 111, 115, 116, 150, 194n4, 207, 278
  • royalty 30, 116, 194n4, 200
  • social rank 30, 35n4, 38, 39, 194–195, 194n4, 197, 203, 204
  • upper ranks 46, 170, 193, 194, 194n4, 197–198, 202–203, 206–207
  • white collar 253–254, 256–258, 264–265

• sociolinguistics 1–2, 303–304, 322–323
  • comparative 3, 5, 248
  • historical 1–2, 3–4, 5–7, 8–10, 11–14, 14–15, 23, 29, 47, 53, 75, 78, 84, 158, 184, 187–188, 217–219, 219–227, 234, 269, 294–295, 304, 307, 323
  • interactional 3, 5, 219, 223
  • social distinction 13
  • variationist 3, 5, 84, 109, 239, 306, 307, 322

• speaker 12, 15, 28, 84, 154, 218, 219–223, 224–227, 233, 307, 323

• spelling 10, 59, 59n8, 62n12, 145, 161–162, 170, 187–188, 190–191, 191n2
  • public and private spelling practices 158, 187–188, 195, 210
  • word-final consonants 193–195, 210
  • word-medial consonants 190
  • word-medial vowels 190, 195–196, 201

• standardization 9, 10, 59n8, 13, 131, 132, 138, 145, 187, 188, 195, 203–204
  • corrections (in editing) 137, 145
  • editing (for publication) 135, 139, 144n9, 153
  • gatekeepers 137, 153, 295
  • invisible language planning 139, 153
  • negotiation of norms 149
  • non-standardization 277
  • visible language planning 138–139, 142, 145–153
  • written language regulation 158

• statistics see methodology

• stigmatization 276, 280, 281–282, 295

• Stijl, Klaas (1724–1774) 165n7

• style of writing 13, 25, 27, 41, 123
  • informational 24, 26, 41
  • involved 23–25, 26, 27, 31, 38, 41, 44, 45–46
  • odd 142–143
  • oral 24, 26, 34, 38, 44, 46, 183
  • plain 166, 168, 183
  • poetic 142–143, 284, 286
  • solemn 166, 168

• syntax
  • dialogical constructions 217
  • existentials 31, 33, 39, 40, 42, 43, 51, 250–251, 250n9, 275, 276–277,  285, 290, 295
  • multiple negation 13, 244, 275, 276–277, 278–282, 287, 289, 291, 294–295, 300
  • northern subject rule (NSR) 250, 252, 256, 258, 269
  • relative clause 28–29, 157, 160, 160n3, 164–165, 252, 255–256, 257n15 ; see also relative pronoun

• theoretical advancements 11–14

• Tollius, Herman (1742–1822) 165–166, 165n7

• Tudor Corpus 189

• twentieth century 11, 91, 98, 100–104, 100n30, 105, 150–152, 162, 241, 252, 258, 286

• Twitter 304–305, 307–308, 308–310

• Uusi Suometar newspaper 133–134, 137, 140–141, 143–144, 147, 152–153

• variation 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 24–25, 25–27, 41, 46–47, 70, 84, 115, 124, 132–133, 139, 145, 150, 151, 157–158, 169–170, 172, 175–180, 180–183, 187–188, 190–210, 218–221, 250–252, 258, 260, 288–289
  • synchronic 276, 290

• vernacular primitive 284

• vernacular universals 12, 13, 275–276, 294–295

• Verwer, Adriaen (1696–1757) 166

• Weiland, Petrus (1754–1842) 158, 166–168, 166n8, 167n9, 168n10, 171–174, 182–184