Cover not available
Article published In:
Asia-Pacific Language Variation
Vol. 4:1 (2018) ► pp.36–72

The role of educational factors in the development of lexical splits

| The Ohio State University

While variationist literature on sound change has mostly focused on chain shifts and mergers, much less is written about splits (Labov, 1994, 2010). Previous literature shows that the acquisition of splits is unlikely unless motivated by social factors (Labov, 1994). The current study presents an apparent time analysis on the development of two phonemic splits, the initial /s/-/ʂ/ contrast and the initial /ɻ/-/l/ contrast, in Xiamen Mandarin, a contact variety of Putonghua, the official language in China. Statistical results showed similar patterns for both variables: younger speakers and female speakers are leading the change; the distinction between two phonemes are more distinct in wordlist than in the sociolinguistic interview. By examining the sociolinguistic situation in Xiamen, the paper discusses two potential factors that have led to these sound changes: the regional campaign for Putonghua and the emphasis of Pinyin, a phonetically-based orthography, in the education system.

Keywords: sociophonetics, phonemic split, Mandarin, change in progress, standard language ideology, Pinyin
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
    • 1.1Language situation in Xiamen, China
    • 1.2Xiamen Mandarin
    • 1.3Initial /s/-/ʂ/ contrast
    • 1.4Initial /ɻ/-/l/ contrast
    • 1.5Initial /n/-/l/ contrast
  • 2.Methodology
    • 2.1Participants
    • 2.2Data collection
    • 2.3Acoustic analysis
      • 2.3.1Initial /s/-/ʂ/ contrast
      • 2.3.2Initial /ɻ/-/l/ contrast
  • 3.Role of internal and external factors on splits
    • 3.1Wordlist
      • 3.1.1Initial /s/-/ʂ/ contrast
      • 3.1.2Initial /ɻ/-/l/ contrast
    • 3.2Wordlist and interview
  • 4.Discussion
    • 4.1The regional campaign for Putonghua
    • 4.2Pinyin in education and beyond
  • 5.Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • References
Published online: 17 September 2018
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/aplv.17004.lin
References (62)
Abdel-Jawad, Hassan, Rashid, E.
(1981) Phonological and social variation in Arabic in Amman. Doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Baran, Dominika
(2014) Linguistic practice and identity work: Variation in Taiwan Mandarin at a Taipei County high school. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 18(1), 32–59. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Barr, Dale J., Levy, Roger, Scheepers, Christoph, & Tily, Harry J.
(2013) Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of Memory and Language, 68(3), 255–278. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Boersma, Paul, & Weenink, David
(2013) Praat [computer software]. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Brubaker, Brian L.
(2012) The normative standard of Mandarin in Taiwan: An analysis of variation in metapragmatic discourse. Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Chang, Yung-hsiang S., & Shih, Chilin
(2015) Place contrast enhancement: The case of the alveolar and retroflex sibilant production in two dialects of Mandarin. Journal of Phonetics, 501, 52–66. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chao, Yuen-Ren
(1968) A grammar of spoken Chinese. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Chen, Ping
(1999) Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chen, Yachuan
(1987) Minnan Kouyin Putonghua Shuolve [Southern Min accented Putonghua]. Yuyan Jiaoxue Yu Yanjiu, 41, 148–155.Google Scholar
DeFrancis, John
(1984) The Chinese language: Facts and fantasy. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
Duanmu, San
(2007) The phonology of standard Chinese (2nd edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hock, Hans Henrick
(1986) Principles of historical linguistics. Berline: Mouton/de Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hu, Fang
(2005) Lun Xiamenhua [mb ŋɡ nd] Shengmu De Shengxue Tezheng Ji Qita [Acoustic characteristics of Xiamen Dialect initials [mb ŋɡ nd]]. Fangyan, 11, 9–17.Google Scholar
Huifang: Jiaoyubu yaoxishuang sizhang zuoke zhengwuzhitong changtan putonghua tuiguang [Reply: Director of the Ministry of Education Xishuang Yao talk about Putonghua promotion]
(2014, September 23) China National Radio. Retrieved on July 25, 2017, from [URL].
Karlgren, Bernhard
(1915–1926) Etudes sur la phonologie chinoise [Studies on Chinese Phonology]. Leyde: E.-J. Brill.Google Scholar
Kubler, Cornelius C.
(1985) The Influence of Southern Min on the Mandarin of Taiwan. Anthropological Linguistics, 27(2), 156–176.Google Scholar
Kuo, Yun-Hsuan
(2005) New dialect formation: The case of Taiwanese Mandarin. Doctoral dissertation, University of Essex.Google Scholar
Labov, William
(1994) Principles of linguistic change volume 1: Internal factors. Malden, Massachussetts: Blackwell.Google Scholar
(2010) Principles of linguistic change, cognitive and cultural factors (volume 31). Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Labov, William, Yaeger, Malcah, & Steiner, Richard
(1972) A quantitative study of sound change in progress (volume 11). US Regional Survey.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, Peter, & Wu, Zongji
(1984) Places of articulation-an investigation of Pekingese fricatives and affricates. Journal of Phonetics, 12(3), 267–278. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lee, Wai-Sum, & Zee, Eric
(2003) Standard Chinese (Beijing). Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33(1), 109–112. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Li, Fangfang
(2008) The phonetic development of voiceless sibilant fricatives in English, Japanese and Mandarin Chinese. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University.Google Scholar
Li, Lujing
(2013) A synchronic study of Yong’an Putonghua in Fujian. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Minzu University of China.Google Scholar
Li, Rulong
(1995) Minnan fangyan diqu de yuyan shenghuo. [The language situation in Southern Min-speaking regions]. Yuwen Yanjiu, 21, 34–37.Google Scholar
Liao, Rongrong, & Shi, Feng
(1987) Hanyu putonghua r shengmu yinzhi de shiyan yanjiu. [An experimental study on the r initial in Putonghua ]. Yuyan Yanjiu, 21, 146–160.Google Scholar
Liao, Sze-wei
(2010) Identity, ideology, and language variation: A sociolinguistic study of Mandarin in central Taiwan. Doctoral dissertation, University of California Davis.Google Scholar
Lin, Chun-Chuang
(1983) A sociolinguistic study of the use of the retroflex sounds in Mandarin in college students in Taiwan. Bulletin of the college arts and letters, national central university, 11, 1–15.Google Scholar
Lin, Wen, & Ji, Xin
(2017, March 14) Shitongjiju fabu 2016nian xiamen changzhu renkou shuju [The municipal statistics bureau released the data on the permanent residency in Xiamen for 2016]. Xiamen Daily. Retrieved on July 25, 2017, from [URL]
Lin, Yen-Hwei
(2007) The sounds of Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Liu, Xiayang
(1999) Zhongguo Puji Putonghua Xianzhuang Fenxi [An analysis of Putonghua Promotion in China]. Zhongguo Renmin Daxue Xuebao, 61, 104–107.Google Scholar
Liu, Yongbing
(2005) A pedagogy for digraphia: An analysis of the impact of Pinyin on literacy teaching in China and its implications for curricular and pedagogical innovations in a wider community. Language and Education, 19(5), 400–414. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ministry of Education of People’s Republic of China
(1956) The instruction of Putonghua promotion from the State Council. Retrieved on July 25, 2017, from [URL]
Nagy, Naomi, & Meyerhoff, Miriam
(2008) Introduction: Social lives in language. In Miriam Meyerhoff & Naomi Nagy (Eds.), Social lives in language – Sociolinguistic and multilingual speech communities: Celebrating the work of Gillian Sankoff (pp. 1–7). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
National Ministry of Education
(2000) Xiaoxue Yuwen Jiaoxue Dagang [The Chinese Language Teaching Outline for Primary Schools]. Beijing: Renmin Jiaoyu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Ni, Haishu
(1983) “Nanyi xiangxin” – Dui Heilongjiangsheng Jinxing “Zhuyin Shizi Tiqian Duxie” Shiyan De Jiancha. [“Hard to believe” – An Investigation of “Zhuyin Shizi Tiqian Duxie” Experiment in Heilongjiang Province]. Renmin Jiaoyu, 101, 33–35.Google Scholar
Norman, Jerry
(1988) Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Payne, Arvilla C.
(1976) The acquisition of the phonological system of a second dialect. Doctoral dissertation, The University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
(1980) Factors controlling the acquisition of the Philadelphia accent by out-of-state children. In William Labov (Ed.), Locating Language in Time and Space (pp. 143–178). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Qie, Yuanchun
(2015) Sanshinian Lai Difang Putonghua Yanjiu Zongshu [A survey on thirty years of research on regional Mandarin]. Xiandai Yuwen, 61, 4–5.Google Scholar
R Core Team
(2017) R: A language and environment for statistical computing (Version 3.4.0) Available from [URL].
Research Group on Migration to Xiamen and the Research on the Economic and Social Devleopment of Xiamen
(2003) Xiamenshi Wailai Renkou Zhuangkuai Yu Wailai Renkou Zhengce Quxiang [Migration to Xiamen and the tendency of migration policy in Xiamen. Xiamen Keji, 31, 45–47.Google Scholar
Reidy, Patrick F.
(2015) The spectral dynamics of voiceless sibilant fricatives in English and Japanese. Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University.Google Scholar
Song, Xinqiao
n.d.). Putonghua Yuyin Fenxi [Putonghua Phonetic Analysis]. Retrieved on July 25, 2017, from [URL].
Stevens, Kenneth, Li, Zhiqiang, Lee, Chao-Yang, & Keyser, Samuel J.
(2004) A note on Mandarin fricatives and enhancement. Gunnar Fant, Hiroya Fujisaki, Jianfen Cao, & Yi Xu (Eds.), From traditional phonology to modern speech processing (pp. 393–403). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.Google Scholar
The Steering Group Office for Survey of Language Use in China
(2006) Zhongguo Yuyan Wenzi Shiyong Qingkuang Diaocha Ziliao [Findings and documents of survey of language situation in China]. Beijing: Yuwen Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Thomson, David J.
(1982) Spectrum estimation and harmonic analysis. Proceedings of the IEEE, 701, 1055–1096. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Thomason, Sarah Grey, & Kaufman, Terrence
(1988) Language contact, creolization and genetic linguistics. University of California Press.Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter
(1986) Dialects in contact. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Tse, Holman
(2016) Contact-induced splits in Toronto Heritage Cantonese mid-vowels. Linguistica Atlantica, 35(2), 133–155.Google Scholar
Wang, Chaohui, & Yu, Jun
(2012) Minnan Dushi Shehui De Yuyan Wenhua Shengtai Diaocha – Yi Xiamen Wei Ge’an. [The metropolis language and culture ecology investigation in Minnan – Taking Xiamen as the case]. Jiamusi Jiaoyu Xueyuan Xuebao, 111, 35–36.Google Scholar
Wang, Li
(2010) Min Fangyanqu Putonghua Zhongjieyu De Biaozheng [The discussion of characterization of Fujian Mandarin dialect of Putonghua interlanguage]. Journal of Sanming University, 27(1), 31–35.Google Scholar
Warner, Natasha, & Tucker, Benjamin V.
(2011) Phonetic variability of stops and flaps in spontaneous and careful speech. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 130(3), 1606–1617. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Winford, Donald
(2003) An introduction to contact linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.Google Scholar
Wu, Yirun, & Yin, Binyong
(1985) Putonghua Shehui Diaocha – Xianzhuang He Qianjing [Putonghua Social Survey – Status Quo and Future]. Wenzi Gaige, 11, 37–38Google Scholar
Wyld, Henry Cecil Kennedy
(1936) A history of modern colloquial English. London: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Lin, Wen, & Ji, Xin
(2017, March 14) Shitongjiju fabu 2016nian xiamen changzhu renkou shuju [The municipal statistics bureau released the data on the permanent residency in Xiamen for 2016]. Xiamen Daily. Retrieved on July 25, 2017, from [URL].
Yang, Cathryn, Stanford, James N., & Yang, Zhengyu
(2015) A sociotonetic study of Lalo tone split in progress. Asia-Pacific Language Variation, 1(1), 52–77. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zhou, Changji
(1991) Minnanhua Yu Putonghua [Southern Min and Putonghua]. Beijing: Yuwen Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zhou, Minglang
(2006) Theorizing language contact, spread, and variation in status planning: A case study of Modern Standard Chinese. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 16(2), 159–174. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zhu, Liyi
(2012) Retroflex and Non-retroflex Merger in Shanghai Accented Mandarin. Master’s thesis, University of Washington.Google Scholar
Zhu, Zhaoxia, Liu, Li, Ding, Guosheng, & Peng, Danling
(2009) Pinyin Shurufa Jingyan Dui Hanzi Zixing He Yuyin Jiagong De Yingxiang [The influence of Pinyin Typewriting Experience on Orthographic and Phonological Processing of Chinese Characters]. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 41(9), 785–792. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cited by (3)

Cited by 3 other publications

Lin, Yuhan & Tianxiao Wang
2024. Rhyming style, persona, and the contested landscape of authentic Chinese hip hop. Journal of Sociolinguistics 28:2 ► pp. 22 ff. DOI logo
Lin, Yuhan
2023. Towards a comprehensive model of style-shifting: Evidence from sibilant variation in Mandarin. Language & Communication 89 ► pp. 23 ff. DOI logo
Regan, Brendan
2022. The social meaning of a merger: The evaluation of an Andalusian Spanish consonant merger (ceceo). Language in Society 51:3 ► pp. 481 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 29 june 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.