Article published In:
Australian Review of Applied LinguisticsVol. 27:2 (2004) ► pp.32–49
Semantic/pragmatic equivalence through formal and motivational shift
The case of number marking in English and Japanese
How would translators approach a process in which they have to make decisions on mapping the grammatically enforced regular number mechanism of a language such as English onto a system like Japanese, where there is no regular coding of number in a noun phrase? Utilising the concepts of motivation for representation of number, and of ‘formal-shift’ (Catford, 1965), this paper demonstrates that in spite of the lack of a grammatical category of number, there is a coherent mechanism that expresses number distinction in Japanese, either implicitly or explicitly, and that in order to achieve the full semantic and pragmatic intent expressed in English in terms of the number of referents, translators have quite a complex task in deciding ‘when’ and ‘how’ to mark number in Japanese. The paper shows that the ‘one’ and ‘more than one’ opposition regularly coded in English is interpreted into a more complex system of number conception in Japanese, namely ‘one’, ‘more than one’, ‘collective image’ and ‘unspecified’. It also draws attention to the various linguistic devices used in Japanese to express number distinction outside the scope of a noun phrase. The paper advocates the usefulness of the approach suggested here for examining instances of transfer of meaning between two typologically distinct languages.
References (40)
Allen, K. (1980). Nouns and countability. Language, 561, 541–567. Catford, J. C. (1965). A linguistic theory of translation. London: Oxford University Press.
Comrie, B. (1981). Language universals and linguistic typology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Corbett, G. (1999). Number. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press.
Corrigan, R., Eckman, F. & Noonan, M. (Eds.) (1989). Linguistic categorization. Amsterdam: Benjamins. 
Croft, W. (1990). Typology and universals. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press.
Downing, P. (1996). Numeral classifier systems: the case of Japanese. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Fuchs, C. & Robert, S. (Eds.) (1999). Language diversity and cognitive representations. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Geiger, R. A. & Rudzka-Ostyn, B. (Eds.) (1993). Conceptualizations and mental processing in language. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Givón, T. (1978). Universal grammar, lexical structure and translatability. In E. Guenthner & M. Guenthner-Reutter (Eds.) Meaning and translation: philosophical and linguistic approaches (pp. 235–272). London: Buckworth.
Greenberg, J. (Ed.) (1966). Universals of grammar. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Guenthner, E. & Guenthner-Reutter, M. (Eds.) (1978). Meaning and translation: philosophical and linguistic approaches. London: Buckworth.
Haiman, J. (Ed.) (1985). Iconicity in syntax. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1961). Categories of the theory of grammar. Word, 171, 241–292.
Ikegami, Y. (1993). What does it mean for a language to have no singular-plural distinction? Noun-verb homology and its typological implication. In R. A. Geiger & B. Rudzka-Ostyn (Eds.) Conceptualizations and mental processing in language (pp. 801–814). Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Jakobson, R. (1992). On linguistic aspects of translation. In R. Schulte & J. Biguenet (Eds.) Theories of translation and anthology of essays from Dry den to Derrida (pp. 144–151). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Jarkey, N. & Moore, H. (2001). Blurred vision or selective focus: what does the lack of number marking on Japanese nouns tell us about the Japanese language? Paper presented to the Japanese Studies Association of Australia Biennial Conference, University of Sydney, 27–30 June.
Kindaichi, H. (1988). Nihongo joo. Tokyo: Iwanami.
Langacker, R. (1987). Nouns and verbs. Language, 631, 53–94.
MaCawley, J.D. (1968). Review of current trends in linguistics 3. Language, 441, 556–593.
Martin, S. (1975). A reference grammar of Japanese. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Matsumoto, K. (1993). Kazu no bunpooka to sono ninchiteki kiban. Gengo, 221, 36–43.
Newmark P. (1991). About translation. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Nitta, Y. (1997). Nihongo bunpoo kenkyuu josetsu. Tokyo: Kuroshio Shuppan.
Okutsu, K. (1986). Nicchuu taishoo suuryoo hyoogen ‘Quantity expressions of Japanese and Chinese’. Nihongogaku, 51, 70–78.
Shinohara, S. (1993). Kasan/fu-kasanmeishi no bunrui kijun. Gengo, 221, 44–49.
Shulte, R. & Biguenet, J. (Eds.) (1992). Theories of translation and anthology of essays from Dry den to Derrida. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Sugamoto, N. (1989). Pronominality: a noun-pronoun continuum. In R. Corrigan, F. Eckman & M. Noonan (Eds.) Linguistic categorization (pp. 267–291). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Umegaki, M. (1961). Nichiei hikakugogaku nyuumon. Tokyo: Taishuukan.
Weinreich, U. (1966). On the semantic structure of language. In J. Greenberg (Ed.) Universals of grammar (pp. 142–216). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Wierzbicka, A. (1985). Oats and wheat: the fallacy of arbitrariness. In J. Haiman (Ed.) Iconicity in syntax (pp. 312–342). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Yamanashi, M. (1995). Ninchibunpooron. Tokyo: Hitsuji Shoboo.
Aihara, M. (trans) (1995). Shikei ‘Lynching’. Translated from From potter’s field by P. Cornwell. Tokyo: Koodanshabunko. (sk)
(trans) (1996). Shun ‘Cause of death’. Translated from Cause of death by P. Cornwell. Tokyo: Koodanshabunko. (si)
(trans) (2000). Shinmon ‘A hearing’ Translated from The last precinct by P. Cornwell. (s)
Cornwell, P. (1995). From potter s field. London: Warner Books. (FPF)
(1996). Cause of death. London: Little, Brown and Company. (CD)
(2000). The last precinct. London: Little, Brown and Company. (LP)
Ikeda, K. (trans) (1995). Sofii no sekai. Translated mainly from the German tranlation of the original Norwegian text Sofies verden by J. Gaarder. Tokyo: NHK Shuppan. (ss)
Kawabata, Y. (1973). Utsukushisa to kanashimi to. Tokyo: Chuuookooron. (UK)
MØller, P. (trans) (1995). Sophies world. Translated from Sofies verden (Sophies World in English) by J. Gaarder. London: Phoenix House, (sw)