While there have been a number of studies exploring the impact of time-on-task and language background on language achievement for both English and other languages, the Student Achievement in Asian Languages Education (SAALE) project constitutes the first systematic attempt to gather empirical evidence of these effects for four Asian languages (Chinese, Indonesian, Japanese and Korean) in Australian schools. The paper focuses on the approach adopted to measure and exemplify the diverse nature of learner achievements in the context of concern. This approach involved a) the gathering of information about the language background and prior learning experience of the study’s participants in order to establish learner sub-groups for subsequent analysis, b) the use of common assessment procedures at each level of schooling to compare levels of achievement across learner sub-groups and c) the analysis of samples of each sub-group’s performance by teams of teacher experts to develop rich descriptions of achievement reflecting the different dimensions of diversity relevant to each language.
The paper outlines the methodology adopted for the study, and reports briefly on the overall findings, Particular attention is paid to the challenges encountered in undertaking the research and to the further efforts that are needed to build on the project outcomes.
Abbott, M. (2006). ESL reading strategies: Differences in Arabic and Mandarin speaker test performance. Language Learning, 561, 633–670.
Blondin, C., Candelier, M., Edelenbos, P., Johnstone, R., Kubanek-German, A. & Taeschner, T. (1998). Foreign languages in primary and pre-school education: context and outcomes. London: CILT.
Bolger, P.A. & Zapata, G.C. (2011). Psycholinguistic approaches to language processing in heritage language speakers. Heritage Language Journal, 8(1), 1–29.
Burstall, C. (1975). French in the primary school: The British experiment. Canadian Modern Language Review. Retrieved 22 November, 2009, from [URL].
Carreira, M. (2004). Seeking explanatory adequacy: A dual approach to understanding the term “heritage language learner.”Heritage Language Journal, 2(1), 1–25.
Carreira, M. & Potowski, K. (2011). Pedagogical implications of experimental SNS research. Heritage Language Journal, 8(1), 134–147.
Carroll, J. B. (1967). Foreign language proficiency levels attained by language majors near graduation from college. Foreign Language Annals, 11, 131–151.
Cleveland, H., Mangone, G. J., & Adams, J. C. (1960). The overseas Americans: A report on Americans abroad. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Clyne, M. (1986). An early start: second language at primary school. Melbourne: River Seine.
Clyne, M., Fernandez, S., Chen, I. & Summo-O’Connell, R. (1997). Background speakers: Diversity and its management in LOTE programs. Belconnen, ACT: The National Languages and Literacy Institute of Australia.
Clyne, M., Jenkins, C., Chen, I. Y., Tsolalidou R., & Wallner, T. (1995). Developing second language from primary school. Canberra: NLLIA.
Collins, L., Halter, R. H., Lightbown, P. M. & Spada, N. (1999) Time and the distribution of time in L2 instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 33(4), 655–680.
Corder S. P. (1981). Language distance and the magnitude of the language learning task. In Error analysis and interlanguage (pp. 95–102). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
de Courcy, M. C. (2002). Learners’ experiences of immersion education: Case studies of French and Chinese. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
DeKeyser, R. (1991). Foreign language development during a semester abroad. In B. F. Freed, (Ed.), Foreign Language Acquisition Research and the Classroom (pp. 104–118). Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.
Dufon, M. & Churchill, E. (Eds). (2006). Language learners in study abroad contexts. London: Multilingual Matters.
Elder, C. (1989). Drowning or waving? An evaluation of an Italian partial immersion program at a Victorian primary school. Melbourne Papers in Applied Linguistics, 1(2), 9–17.
Elder, C. (1996). The effect of language background on ‘foreign’ language test performance: The case of Chinese, Italian and Modern Greek. Language Learning, 46(2), 233–82.
Elder, C. (1997). The background speaker as learner of Italian, Modern Greek and Chinese: Implications for foreign language assessment. Doctoral dissertation, University of Melbourne.
Elder, C. (2000b). Outing the ‘native speaker’: The problem of diverse learner backgrounds in foreign language classrooms. Language, Curriculum and Culture, 13(1), 86–108.
Farmer, K. (2006). The Japanese bilingual program at Huntingdale Primary School, Melbourne. Babel, 41(2), 32–4, 381.
Hill, K. (2012). Classroom-based assessment in the school foreign language classroom. Frankfurt am Main, Peter Lang.
Hill, K., Davies, A., Oldfield, J. & Watson, N. (1997). Questioning an early start: the transition from primary to secondary foreign language learning. Melbourne Papers in Language Testing, 6(2): 21–36.
Iwashita, N. (this issue). Cross-linguistic influence as a factor in the written and oral production of school age learners of Japanese in Australia.
Jarvis, S. & Pavlenko, E. (2008). Crosslinguistic influence in language and cognition. New York/London: Routledge.
Johnstone, R. (2000). Context-sensitive assessment of modern languages in primary (elementary) and early secondary education: Scotland and the European experience. Language Testing, 17(2), 123–142.
Johnstone, R. (2006). Review of research on language teaching, learning and policy published in 2004 and 2005. Language Teaching, 9(4), 1–27.
Kagan, O. (2005). In support of a proficiency-based definition of heritage language learners: The case of Russian. The International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 81(2&3), 213–221.
Kim, H.-S. (2005). Processing strategies and transfer by heritage and non-heritage learners of Korean. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Kim, J.-H., Montrul, S. & Yoon, J. (2009). Bindng interpretations of Korean heritage speakers. Language Acquisition, 161, 3–55.
Kim, S. H. O. (this issue). Learner background and the acquisition of discourse features of Korean in the Australian secondary school context.
King, K. A. & Ennser-Kananen, J. (2012). Heritage languages and language policy. In C. Chapelle, (Ed.). The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Wiley-Blackwell. .
Kohler (this issue). How does time-on-task affect the achievement of early and late starters of Indonesian in schools?
Kondo-Brown, K. (2008). Issues and future agendas for teaching Chinese, Japanese and Korean heritage students. In K. Kondo-Brown & J. D. Brown, (Eds.), Teaching Chinese, Japanese and Korean heritage language students: Curriculum needs, materials, and assessment (pp. 17–43). New York: Lawrence Erbaum.
Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across cultures: applied linguistics for language teachers. Michigan, University of Michigan Press.
Llosa, L. (in press) Assessing heritage language learners. In A. Kunnan, (Ed.) Companion to Language Assessment. London: Wiley-Blackwell.
Lorch, S., McNamara, T. & Eisokovitz, E. (1992). Late Hebrew immersion at Mt Scopus College, Melbourne: towards complete Hebrew fluency for Jewish day school students. Language and Language Education, 2(1), 1–29.
Marriott, H. (1993). Acquiring sociolinguistic competence: Australian secondary students in Japan. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 4(4), 167–92.
Molyneux, P. (2004). Pride and empowerment: Bilingually educated students reflect on their learning. Australian Language and Literacy Matters, 1(2), 4–10.
Montrul, S. (2002). Incomplete acquisition and attrition of Spanish tense/aspect distinctions in adult bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 5(1), 39–68.
Montrul, S. & Perpiñán. S. (2011). Assessing differences and similarities between instructed heritage language learners and L2 learners in their knowledge of Spanish tense-aspect and mood (TAM) morphology. Heritage Language Journal, 8(1), 90–113.
Odlin, T. (1989). Language Transfer: Cross-linguistic Influence in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
O’Grady, W., Kwak, H-Y., Lee, O.-S., & Lee, M. (2011). An emergentist perspective on heritage language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 331, 223–45.
O’Grady, Lee, O-S & Lee, J-H, (2011). Practical and theoretical issues in the study of heritage language acquisition. Heritage Language Journal, 8(3), 23–39.
Oostdam, R. & Van Toorenburg, H. (2002). ‘Leuk is not enough’: Het vraagstuk van de positionering van Engels inhebasisondervijs en de aansluitingmet het voortgezetonderwijs. LevendeTalentijdschrift, 3(4), 3–17.
Ozolins, U. (1993). The politics of language in Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Polinsky, M. (2008). Without aspect. In G. Corbett & M. Noonan, (Eds.), Case and grammatical relations (pp. 263–82). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Polinsky, M. & Kagan, O. (2007). Heritage languages: In the ‘wild’ and in the classroom. Language and Linguistics Compass, 1(5), 368–395.
Pufahl, I., Rhodes, N. C. & Christian, D. (2000). Foreign Language Teaching: What the United States Can Learn from other Countries. Eric Document ED-00-PO-4609.
Rao, Z. (2001). Matching teaching styles with learning styles in East Asian contexts. The Internet TESL Journal, VII(7). Retrieved from [URL].
Rudd, K. (1994). Asian Languages and Australia’s Economic Future: A report prepared for the Council of Australian Governments on a proposed national Asian languages/studies strategy for Australian schools. Brisbane: Queensland Government Printer.
Scarino, A., Elder, C., Iwashita, N., Kim, S. H. O., Kohler, M. & Scrimgeour, A. (2011). Student Achievement in Asian Languages Education. Full report. Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations: Canberra.
Scarino, A. (this issue). A rationale for acknowledging the diversity of learner achievements in learning particular languages in school education in Australia.
Serrano, R.Tragant, E. & Llanes, A. (2012). A longitudinal analysis of the effects of one year abroad. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 68(2), 138–163.
Slaughter, Y. (2007a). The study of Asian languages in two Australian states: Considerations for language-in-education policy and planning. Unpublished PhD thesis. Department of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics, University of Melbourne.
Slaughter, Y. (2007b). The rise and fall of Indonesian in Australian schools: Implications for language policy and planning. Asian Studies Review, 311, 301–322.
Spada, N., Lightbown, P. M. (1989). Intensive ESL programs in Quebec primary schools. TESL Canada Journal, 7(1), 11–32.
Stern, H. H. (1985). The time factor and compact course development. TESL Canada Journal, 3(1), 13–27.
Valdés, G. (2001). Heritage language students: Profiles and possibilities. In J. K. Peyton, D. A. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.), Heritage languages in America: Preserving a national resource (pp. 37–80). Washington, DC & McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics & Delta Systems.
Victoria, Department ofucation and Early Childhood Development (DEECD) (2010). Languages Other Than English in Victorian Government Schools 2009. Melbourne: DEECD. Retrieved 9 September, 2012 from [URL]
Vinjé, M. P. (1993). Balans van het Engels aanheteinde van de basisschool. Arnhem: CITO.
Wiley, T. G. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In J. K. Peyton, D. A. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.), Heritage languages in America: Preserving a national resource (pp. 29–36). Washington, DC & McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics & Delta Systems.
Wilkinson, S. (1998). Study abroad from the participants’ perspective: A challenge to common beliefs. Foreign Language Annals, 311, 23–39.
Cited by (5)
Cited by five other publications
Gil, Jeffrey
2021. Conclusion. In The Rise of Chinese as a Global Language, ► pp. 145 ff.
Scarino, Angela
2014. Recognising the Diversity of Learner Achievements in Learning Asian Languages in School Education Settings. In Dynamic Ecologies [Multilingual Education, 9], ► pp. 137 ff.
Willoughby, Louisa
2014. Meeting the challenges of heritage language education: lessons from one school community. Current Issues in Language Planning 15:3 ► pp. 265 ff.
Willoughby, Louisa
2016. High Stakes Assessment of Heritage Languages: The Case of the Victorian Certificate of Education. In Handbook of Comparative Studies on Community Colleges and Global Counterparts [Springer International Handbooks of Education, ], ► pp. 1 ff.
Willoughby, Louisa
2018. High Stakes Assessment of Heritage Languages: The Case of the Victorian Certificate of Education. In Handbook of Research and Practice in Heritage Language Education [Springer International Handbooks of Education, ], ► pp. 429 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 4 july 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.