Cover not available
Article published In:
Cognitive Linguistic Studies
Vol. 2:2 (2015) ► pp.205–238

Visual processing of connected and unconnected letters and words in Arabic

| The Arab Center for Mind, Brain & Behavior, Sakhnin, Israel
A letter-reading task (Experiments 1) and a word-reading task of regular words (Experiments 2) and of visually distorted words (Experiments 3) were used to examine the reciprocal interaction between phonological encoding strategies and visual factors, such as the global word shape, local letters shape, and inter-letter spacing. Our participants comprised Arabic readers familiar with different letter and word forms (connected vs. unconnected: without inter-letter spaces vs. with inter-letter spaces). In addition, this study is the first instance of the word length effect being studied in an Arabic context using different word lengths (3 vs. 5 letters). The average reading times for Arabic words are affected by the word connectivity, since the average reading time is shorter for connected than unconnected words of all word lengths (3 and 5 letters) reflecting the activation of lexical route, which processes letters in letter strings in parallel. As well, the average reading times for Arabic words are affected by the word length, since the average reading time is shorter for 3-letter words than 5-letter words reflecting the activation of non-lexical route, which processes letters in letter strings sequentially. Length effect is the signature of the non-lexical route due to its seriality caused by assembled phonology.
Keywords: connected\un-connected words and letters, Arabic, visual processing, reading
Published online: 3 March 2016
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/cogls.2.2.02gan
References (142)
Abdelhadi, S., Ibrahim, R., & Eviatar, Z. (2011). Perceptual load in the reading of Arabic: Effects of orthographic visual complexity on detection. Writing Systems Research, 31, 117–127. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Abd El-Minem, F.M. (1987). Elm al-sarf. Jerusalem: Al-Taufik Press [in Arabic].Google Scholar
Abu-Rabia, S. (2001). The role of vowels in reading semitic scripts: Data from Arabic and Hebrew. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 141, 39–59. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Adams, M.J. (1979). Models of word recognition. Cognitive Psychology, 111, 133–176. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Adams, M.J., & Bruck, M. (1993). Word recognition: The interface of educational policies and scientific research. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 51, 113–139. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Aghababian, V., & Nazir, T.A. (2000). Developing normal reading skills: Aspects of the visual processes underlying word recognition. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 761, 123–150. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Allen, P.A., Wallace, B., & Weber, T.A. (1995). Influence of case type, word frequency, and exposure duration on visual word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 211, 914–934. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Attneave, F. (1955). Symmetry, information, and memory for patterns. American Journal of Psychology, 681, 209–222. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Azzam, R. (1989). Orthography and reading of the Arabic language. In P.G. Aaron & R.M. Joshi (Eds.), Reading and writing disorders in different orthographic systems (pp. 1–29). New York: Kluwer Academic. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (1993). The nature of Arabic reading and spelling errors of young children. Reading and Writing, 51, 355–385. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Babcock, M.K., & Freyd, J.J. (1988). Perception of dynamic information in static handwritten forms. American Journal of Psychology, 1011, 111–130. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Babkoff, H., Faust, M., & Lavidor, M. (1997). Lexical decision, visual hemifield and angle of orientation. Neuropsychologia, 351, 487–495. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Badian, N. (2005). Does a visual-orthographic deficit contribute to reading disability? Annals of Dyslexia, 551, 28–52. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Balota, D.A. (1994). Visual word recognition: The journey from features to meaning. In M.A. Gernsbacher (Ed.), Handbook of psycholinguistics (pp. 303–358).San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Belaid, A., & Choisy, C. (2008). Human Reading based strategies for off-line arabic word recognition. Arabic and Chinese Handwriting Recognition Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 47681, 36–56. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Berent, I., & Shimron, J. (1997). The representation of Hebrew words: Evidence from the obligatory contour principle. Cognition, 641, 39–72. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Berwick D.M., & Winickoff, D.E. (1996). The truth about doctors’ handwriting: A prospective study. BMJ, 3131, 1657–1658. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Besner, D. (1989). On the role of outline shape and word-specific visual pattern in the identification of function words: None. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 41A1, 91–105. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Blommaert, F.J. (1988). Early-visual factors in letter confusions. Spatial Vision, 31, 199–224. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bouma, H. (1970). Interaction effects in parafoveal letter recognition. Nature, 2261, 177–178. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (1971). Visual recognition of isolated lower-case letters. Vision Research, 111, 450–474. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (1973). Visual interference in the parafoveal recognition of initial and final letters of words. Vision Research, 13(4), 767–782. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (1978). Visual search and reading: Eye movements and functional visual field: A tutorial review. In J. Requin (Ed.), Attention and performance, (Vol. VII1, pp. 115–146). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bouma, H., & Legein, C. (1977). Foveal and parafoveal recognition of letters and words by dyslexics and by average readers. Neuropsychologia, 151, 69–79. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bradshaw, J.L., Nettleton, N.C., & Taylor, M.J. (1981). The use of laterally presented words in research into cerebral asymmetry: Is directional scanning likely to be a source of artifact? Brain and Language, 141, 1–14. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Briggs, R., & Hocevar, D.J. (1975). A new distinctive feature theory for upper case letters. Journal of General Psychology, 931, 87–93.Google Scholar
Bruder, G.A. (1978). Role of visual familiarity in the word-superiority effects obtained with the simultaneous matching task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 41, 88–100. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bryden, M.P., & Allard, F. (1976). Visual hemifield asymmetries depend on typeface. Brain & Language, 31, 191–200. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cattell, J.M. (1896). The time taken up by cerebral operations. Mind, 111, 377–392.Google Scholar
Clark, J.J., & O’Regan, J.K. (1999). Word ambiguity and the optimal viewing position in reading. Vision Research, 391, 843–857. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chung, S.T.L. (2002). The Effect of letter spacing on reading speed in central and peripheral vision. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,43(4), 1270–1276.Google Scholar
Chung, S.T.L., & Legge, G.E. (2009). Precision of position signals for letters. Vision Research, 491, 1948–1960. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Coltheart, M. (2005). Modeling Reading: The dual- route approach. In M. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading: A handbook (pp. 6–23). Oxford, England: Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Coltheart, M., & Freeman, R. (1974). Case alternation impairs word identification. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 31, 102–104. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R., & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review, 108(1), 204–256. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Corcoran, D.W.J., & Rouse, R.O. (1970). An aspect of perceptual organization involved in reading typed and handwritten words. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 221, 526–530. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Davis, C.J. (2010). The spatial coding model of visual word identification. Psychological Review, 1171, 713–758. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dehaene, S., Cohen, L., Sigman, M., & Vinckier, F. (2005). The neural code for written words: A proposal. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(7), 335–341. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Drewnowski, A., & Healy, A.F. (1977). Detection errors on the and and: Evidence for reading units larger than the word. Memory & Cognition, 51, 636–647. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ehri, L. (2005). Development of sight word reading: Phases and findings. In M. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading: a handbook (pp. 135–154). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ehri, C.L., & Snowling, J.M. (2005). Developmental variations in word recognition. In C.A. Stone, R.E. Silliman, J.B. Ehren, & K. Apel (Eds.), Handbook of language and literacy: Development and disorders (pp. 433–460). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Eviatar, Z., Ibrahim, R., & Ganayim, D. (2004). Orthography and the hemispheres: Visual and linguistic aspects of letter processing. Neuropsychology, 181, 174–184. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Eviatar, Z., & Zaidel, E. (1991). The effects of word length and emotionality on hemispheric contribution to lexical decision. Neuropsychologia, 291, 415–428. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Farah, N., Khadir, M.T., & Sellami, M. (2005). Artificial neural network fusion: Application to Arabic words recognition. 13th European Symposium on Artificial Neural Networks ESANN , (pp. 151–155).
Fehrer, E.V. (1935). An investigation of the learning of visually perceived forms. American Journal of Psychology, 471, 187–221. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Fisher, D.F. (1975). Reading and visual search. Memory and Cognition, 31, 188–196. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Frith, U. (1985). Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexia. In K.E. Patterson, J.C. Marashall, & M. Coltheart (Eds.), Surface dyslexia (pp. 301–330). London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Gervais, M.J., Harvey, L.O., Jr., & Roberts, J.O. (1984). Identification confusions among letters of the alphabet. Journal of Experimental Psychology— Human Perception and Performance, 101, 655–666. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Geyer, L.H. (1977). Recognition and confusion of the lowercase alphabet. Perception & Psychophysics, 221, 487–490. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gibson, E.J., Osser, H., Schiff, W., & Smith, J. (1963). An analysis of critical features of letters tested by a confusion matrix. In A basic research program on reading. [Cooperative Research Project No. 639], Ithaca, NY: Cornell UniversityGoogle Scholar
Gomez, P., Ratcliff, R., & Perea, M. (2008). The overlap model: A model of letter position coding. Psychological Review, 1151, 577– 600. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gough, P.B. (1984).Wordrecognition. In P.D. Pearson, R. Barr, M.L. Kamil, & P. Mosenthal (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 225–253). New York: Longman.Google Scholar
Hagenzieker, M.P., van der Heijden, A.H.C., & Hagenaar, R. (1990). Time-courses in visual-information processing: Some empirical evidence for inhibition. Psychological Research, 521, 13–21. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Healy, A.F. (1976). Detection errors on the word the: Evidence for reading units larger than letters. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 21, 235–242. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (1994). Letter detection:A windowto unitization and other cognitive processes in reading text. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 11, 333–344. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Healy, A.F., Conboy, G.L., & Drewnowski, A. (1987). Characterizingthe processing units of reading: Effects of intra- and intern word spaces in a letter detection task. In B.K. Britton & S.M. Glynn) Eds.), Executive control processes in reading (pp. 279–296). Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Hellige, J., & Adamson, M. (2007). Hemispheric Differences in processing handwritten cursive. Brain & Language, 1021, 215–227. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Henderson, J.M. (1992). Visual attention and eye movement control during reading and scene perception. In K. Rayner (Ed.), Eye movements and visual cognition: Scene perception and reading (pp. 260–283). New York: Springer-Verlag. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Iacoboni, M., & Zaidel, E. (1996). Hemispheric independence in word recognition: Evidence from unilateral and bilateral presentations. Brain and Language, 531, 121–140. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ibrahim, R., & Eviatar, Z. (2003). The effects of metalinguistic awareness on acquisition of reading: A cross-language comparison. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar
Ibrahim, R., Eviatar, Z., & Aharon-Perez, J. (2002). Do the characteristics of Arabic orthography slow its cognitive processing? Neuropsychology, 161, 322–326. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, R.J. (1979). Visual resolution and contour interaction in the fovea and periphery. Vision research, 191, 1187–1196. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jordan, T.R., Patching, G.R., & Milner, A.D. (2000). Lateralized word recognition: Assessing the role of hemispheric specialization, modes of lexical access and perceptual asymmetry. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 261, 1192–1208. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Khateb, A., Khateb-Abdelgani, M., Taha, H.Y., & Ibrahim, R. (2014). The impact of orthographic connectivity on visual word recognition in Arabic: A cross- sectional study. Reading and Writing, 61, 1–24.Google Scholar
Khateb, A., Taha, H.Y., Elias, I., & Ibrahim, R. (2013). The effect of the internal orthographic connectivity of written Arabic words on the process of the visual recognition: A comparison between skilled and dyslexic readers. Writing Systems Research, 51, 214–233. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Koriat, A., & Norman, J. (1985). Reading rotated words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 11, 490–508. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (1989). Why is word recognition impaired by disorientation while the identification of single letters is not? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 151, 153–163. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kristen, P., Hensen, P., Holliday, I., & Cornelossen, P. (2006). Attentional Shifting and the role of the dorsal pathways in visual word recognition. Neuropsychologia, 441, 2926–2936. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
LaBerge, D., & Brown, V. (1989). Theory of attentional operations in shape identification. Psychological Review, 961, 101–124. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
LaBerge, D, & Samuels, S.J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information Processing in Reading. Cognitive Psychology, 61, 293–323. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lachmann, T. (2000). Memory processes in recognition and comparison. Psychologia Universalis Nr. 22. Lengerich, Berlin: Pabst Science Publishers.Google Scholar
Latham, K., & Whitaker, D. (1996). A comparison of word recognition and reading performance in foveal and peripheral vision. Vision Research, 361, 2665–2674. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lavidor, M. (2011). Whole-word shape effect in dyslexia. Journal of Research in Reading, 34(4), 443–454. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Levi, D.M., Song, S., & Pelli, D.G. (2007). Amblyopic reading is crowded. Journal of Vision, 7(2), 211, 1–17.Google Scholar
Leybaert, J., & Content, A. (1995). Reading and spelling acquisition in two different teaching methods: A test of the independence hypothesis. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 71, 65–88. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lindell, A.K., & Nicholls, M.E.R. (2003). Cortical representation of the fovea: Implications for visual half-field research. Cortex, 39(1), 111–117. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lindell, A.K., Nicholls, M.E.R., Kwantes, P.J.K., & Castles, A. (2005). Sequential processing in hemispheric word recognition: The impact of initial letter discriminability on the OUP naming effect. Brain & Language, 931, 160–172. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Loomis, J.M. (1982). Analysis of tactile and visual confusion matrices. Perception & Psychophysics, 311, 41–52. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lorusso, M.L., Facoetti S., Pesenti, S., Cattaneo, C., Molteni, M., & Geiger, G. (2004). Wider recognition in peripheral vision common to different subtypes of dyslexia. Vision research, 441, 2413–2424. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mari-Beffa, P., Houghton, G., Estevez, A.F., & Fuentes, L.J. (2000). Word-based grouping affects the prime-task effect on semantic priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 261, 469–447 DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Martelli, M., Majaj, J.N., & Pelli, G.D. (2005). Are faces processed like words? A diagnostic test for recognition by parts. Journal of Vision, 51, 58–70. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Marzouki, Y., Meeter, M., & Grainger, J. (2013).Location invariance in masked repetition priming of letters and words. Acta Psychologica. (Amst.), 1421, 23–29. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mason, M. (1978). From print to sound in mature readers as a function of reader ability and two forms of orthographic regularity. Memory and Cognition, 61, 568–581. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mazzro, D.W., & Klitzke, D. (1977). Letters are functional in word identification. Memory & Cognition,5(3), 292–298. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mayall, K.A., Humphreys, G.W., & Olson, A. (1997). Disruption to word or letter processing? The origins of case-mixing effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 231, 1275–1286. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McClelland, J.L. (1976). Preliminary letter identification in the perception of words and nonwords. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1976(7), 80–91. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McClelland, J.L., & Rumelhart, D.E. (1981). An interactive activation model of context effect in letter perception. Part I: an account of basic findings. Psychological Review, 881, 375–407. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McLeish, E. (2007). A study of the effect of letter spacing on the reading speed of young readers with low vision. British Journal of Visual Impairment, 251, 133–143. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Montant, M., Nazir, T.A., & Poncet, M. (1998). Pure alexia and the viewing position effect in printed words. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 151, 93–140. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Na¨sa¨nen, R., Kukkonen, H., & Rovamo, J. (1993). Spatial integration of band-pass filtered patterns in noise. Vision Research, 331, 903–911. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Navon, D. (1978). Perception of mis-oriented words and letter strings. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 321, 129–140. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nazir, T.A. (2000). Traces of print along the visual pathway. In A. Kennedy, R. Radach, D. Heller, & J. Pynte (Eds.), Reading as a perceptual process (pp. 3–23). Amsterdam, North- Holland: Elsevier. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nazir, T.A., Heller, D., & Sussmann, C. (1992). Letter visibility and word recognition: The optimal viewing position in printed words. Perception & Psychophysics, 52(3), 315–328. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nazir, T A., O'Regan, J.K., & Jaccobs, A.M. (1991). On words and their letters. Bulletin ofthe Psychonomic Society, 291, 171–174. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
New, B., Ferrand, L., Pallier, C., & Brysbaert, M. (2006). Re-examining word length effects in visual word recognition: New evidence from the English Lexicon Project. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 131, 45–52. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pammer, K., Lavis, R., Cooper, C., Hansen, P.C., & Cornelissen, P.L. (2005). Symbol- string sensitivity and adult performance in lexical decision. Brain and Language, 94(3), 278–296. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pammer, K., Lavis, R., Hansen, P., & Cornelissen, P.L. (2004) Symbol string sensitivity and children's reading. Brain and Language, 891, 601–610. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pelli, D.G., Burns, C.W., Farell, B., & Moore-Page, D.C. (2006) Feature detection and letter identification. Vision Research, 46(28), 4646–4674. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pelli, D.G., & Farrell, B. (1992). Visual Memory. Talk presented at ECVP meeting , Pisa, Italy.
Pelli, D.G., Farell, B., & Moore, D.C. (2003) The remarkable inefficiency of word recognition. Nature, 4231, 752–756. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pelli, D.G., Palomares, M., & Majaj, N.J. (2004). Crowding is unlike ordinary masking: Distinguishing feature integration from detection. Journal of Vision, 41, 1136–1169. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pelli, D.G., Tillman, A.K., Freeman, J., Su, M., Berger, D.T., & Majaj, J.N. (2007). Crowding and eccentricity determine reading rate. Journal of Vision, 7(2), 1–36. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pelli, D.G., Farell, B., & Moore, D.C. (2003). The remarkable inefficiency of word recognition. Nature, 4231, 752–756. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Perea, M., & Gomez, P. (2012a). Subtle Increases in inter letter spacing facilitate the encoding of words during normal reading. PLoS ONE, 7(10), e47568. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2012b). Increasing inter letter spacing facilitates encoding of words. Psychology of Bulletin & Review, 191, 332–338. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Perea, M., & Lupker, S.J. (2003). Does jugde activate COURT? Transposed-letter similarity effects in masked associative priming. Memory & Cognition, 311, 829–841. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2004). Can CANISO activate CASINO? Transposed-letter similarity effects with nonadjacent letter positions. Journal of Memory and Language, 511, 231–246. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Perea, M., Moret-Tatay, C., & Gomez, P. (2011). The effects of inter letter spacing in visual-word recognition. Acta Psychologica, 1371, 345–351. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Perea, M., Panadero, V., Moret-Tatay, C., & Gomez, P. (2012). The effects of inter letterspacing in visual-word recognition: Evidence with young normal readers and developmental dyslexics. Learn and Instruction, 221, 420–430. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Perry, C., Ziegler, J.C., & Zorzi, M. (2007). Nested incremental modeling in the development of computational theories: The CDP+ model of reading aloud. Psychological Review, 1141, 273–315. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Foorman, B., Perfetti, C.A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M.S. (2002). How should reading be taught? Scientific American, 2861, 84–91. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Reichle, E.D., Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (2006). E–Z Reader: A cognitive-control, serial-attention model of eye-movement control during reading. Cognitive Systems Research, 71, 4–22. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rumelhart, D.E., & McClelland, J.L. (1982). An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: Part 2. The contextual enhancement effect and some tests and extensions of the model. Psychological Review, 89(1), 60–94. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schneider, V.I., & Healy, A.F. (1993). Detecting phonemes and letters in text: Interactions between different types and levels of processes. Memory & Cognition, 211, 739–751. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schomaker, L., & Segers, E. (1999). Finding features used in the human reading of cursive handwriting. International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition, 21, 13–18. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Share, D.L. (2008). On the Anglocentricities of current reading research and practice: The perils of overreliance on an "outlier" orthography. Psychological Bulletin, 1341, 584–615. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Shillcock, R., Ellison, T.M., & Monaghan, P. (2000). Eye-fixation behavior, lexical storage, and visual word recognition in a split processing model. Psychological Review, 107(4), 824–851. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sieroff, E., & Posner, M.I. (1988). Cueing spatial attention during processing of words and letter strings in normals. Cognitive. Neuropsycholgy, 51, 451–72. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Smith, F. (1969). Familiarity of configuration vs discriminability of features in the visual identification of words. Psychonomic Science, 141, 261–263. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Strasburger, H. (2003). A generalized cortical magnification rule predicts low-contrast letter recognition in the visual field. Journal of Vision, 3(9), 653a. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (2003). Indirektes Sehen. Formerkennung im zentralen und peripheren Gesichtsfeld. GPttingen, Bern, Toronto, Seattle: Hogrefe.Google Scholar
Stuart, J.A., & Burian, H.M. (1962). A study of separation difficulty and its relationship to visual acuity in normal and amblyopic eyes. American Journal of Ophthalmology, 531, 471–477. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Stuart, M., Masterson, J., Dixon, M., & Quinlan, P. (1999). Inferring sublexical correspondences from sight vocabulary: Evidence from 6- and 7-year-olds. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A, 52(2), 353–366. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Taha, H., Ibrahim, R., & Khateb, A. (2013). How does Arabic orthographic connectivity modulate brain activity during visual word recognition: An ERP study. Brain Topography, 261, 292–302. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tai, Y.C., Sheedy, J., & Hayes, J. (2009). The effect of interletter spacing on reading. Paper presented at the Computer Displays and Vision Conference . Forest Grove, OR.
Tanaka, J.W., & Gauthier, I. (1997). Expertise in object and face recognition. In R.L. Goldstone, D.L. Medin, P.G. Schyns& (Eds.), Mechanisms of perceptual learning (Vol. 361, pp. 83–125). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Taouk, M., & Coltheart, M. (2004).The cognitive processes involved in learning to read in Arabic. Reading and Writing, 17(1-2), 27–57. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Taylor, I., & Taylor, M.M. (1983). The psychology of reading. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Tinker, M.A. (1963). Legibility of print. Iowa: Iowa State University Press.Google Scholar
Townsend, J.T. (1971a). Theoretical analysis of the alphabetic confusion matrix. Perception & Psychophysics, 91, 40–50. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. (1971b). Alphabetic confusion: A test of models for individuals. Perception & Psychophysics, 91, 449–454. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Townsend, J.T., & Ashby, F.G. (1982). Experimental test of contemporary mathematical models of visual letter recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 81, 834–854. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Townsend, J.T., Hu, G.G., & Evans, R.J. (1984). Modeling feature perception in brief displays with evidence for positive interdependencies. Perception & Psychophysics, 361, 35–49. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Van Overschelde, J.P., & Healy, A.F. (2005). A blank look in reading: The effect of blank space on the identification of letters and words during reading. Experimental Psychology, 521, 213–223. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Vellutino, F.R., Fletcher, J.M., Snowling, M.J., & Scanlon, D.M. (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(1), 2–40. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wagner, N.M., & Harris, L.J. (1994). Effects of typeface characteristics on visual field asymmetries for letter identification in children and adults. Brain & Language, 461, 41–58. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Watson, A.B., & Fitzhugh, A.E. (1989). Modelling character legibility. Society for Information Display Digest of Technical Papers, 201, 360–363.Google Scholar
Weinstein, M. (1955). Stimulus complexity and the recognition of visual patterns. Doctoral dissertation. Ohio State University
Whitney, C. (2001). How the brain encodes the order of letters in a printed word: The SERIOL model and selective literature review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8(2), 221–243. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Windes, J.D., (1991). Reaction time to a word in different orientations with letters rotated separately in different orientations. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 721, 299–305. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ziegler, J.C., & Goswami, U. (2005). Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilledreading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory. Psychol Bulletin, 1311, 3–29. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zorzi, M., Barbiero, C., Facoetti, A., Lonciari, L., Carrozzi, M., Montico, M., Bravar, L., George, F., Pech-Georgel, C., & Ziegler, J.C. (2012). Extra-large letter spacing improves reading in dyslexia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 109(28), 11455–11459.