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Article published In:
English World-Wide
Vol. 45:1 (2024) ► pp.94–124

How “U” are “U” words?

Exploring variation in the usage and perception of class-based lexical shibboleths in British English

| Queen Mary University of London
| University of York
| Nottingham Trent University
| University of Sussex

That U (upper-class) and non-U (non-upper class) speakers are identifiable through their vocabulary is an axiom in England. These claims are repeated in books, in print media, on social media, and in conversations regarding social class. However, such claims are seldom investigated empirically. To redress this, we consider the production and perception of allegedly U and non-U lexis through two studies. In the first, we identify the sociolinguistic distribution of the usage of three variables which are purported to be indicators of socioeconomic status, namely, loo, napkin, and sofa. The second study employs the matched-guise technique to investigate the perception of variants of these three variables. The production results reveal that all three variables exhibit change in apparent-time with limited evidence of class-based variation. In the perception study, we find no systematic class-based indexicalities across the variables. Ultimately, our findings challenge the belief that allegedly U words are shibboleths of upper-classness.

Keywords: social class, U words, lexical variation and change, production, perception
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Social class in British sociolinguistics
  • 3.Applying sociolinguistic theory to U and non-U vocabulary
  • 4.Data collection and methods
    • 4.1The variables and variants
    • 4.2Production study
      • 4.2.1Methods
      • 4.2.2The participants
    • 4.3Perception study
  • 5.Results
    • 5.1Loo
    • 5.2Napkin
    • 5.3Sofa
  • 6.Discussion
  • 7.Conclusions
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • Sources
  • References
Published online: 1 February 2024
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/eww.00085.san
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