When 19th-century Westerners first began applying modern methods to Chinese linguistics, they were heavily influenced by Chinese phonological traditions. This influence is apparent in a number of their methodological decisions. For instance, they do not seem to have resolved their difficulties distinguishing plain from aspirated obstruents until they copied Chinese sources. Their work in comparative dialectology was almost always dominated by the Chinese rime-table tradition. Even the systems of universal orthography they developed for Chinese incorporated traditional Chinese tonal symbols. Yet these Western sinologists seem to have made little attempt to communicate their own work to Chinese scholars in a formal way; though they were influenced by Chinese ideas, they published their work in the main for other Westerners, with the result that their new synthesis did not directly influence native Chinese linguistics.
1990 “Jangjou Sanjoong Shyrwuu In jy Yuanliou jyi Chyi Inshih 漳州三種十五音之源流及其音系 [The origins of three Shyrwuu In books and their phonological systems]”. Tair’uan Fengwuh臺灣風物 40:3.55–79.
Âng Uî-jîn洪惟仁
1991 “May Dusy Fwujiann Fangyan Tzyhdean.de Jiahjyr 麥都思「福建方言字典」的價值 [The Value of Medhurst’s Dictionary of the Hok-Këèn Dialect
]”. Tair’uan Wenshiann臺灣文獻 42:2.95–115.
Âng Uî-jîn洪惟仁
1994 “Sheauchuan Shanqyih yeu Gau Beenhann Hannyeu Yeuin Yanjiow jy Biijiaw 小川尚義與高本瀵語語音研究之比較 [Original English title: A Comparison of Research on Chinese Phonology by Ogawa and Karlgren]”. Taiwan Historical Research [Tairuan Shyy Yanjiow台灣史研究 I:2.25–84.
Baldwin, Caleb Cook
(d. after 1905) 1871 A Manual of the Foochow Dialect. Foochow: Methodist Episcopal Mission Press.
Barrow, Sir John
1806[1804]Travels in China. London: T. Cadell & W. Davies.
Barrow, Sir John
1806A Voyage to Cochinchina in the Years 1792 and 1793. London: T. Cadell & W. Davies. (Repr. as A Voyage to Cochinchina, introduction by Milton Osborne. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford Univ. Press 1975.)
Borealis
1874Letter, dated 29 Sept. 1874. Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal 5:5.292–294 (Sept./Oct. 1874).
Borealis
1875Letter, dated May 27th, 1875. Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal 6:3.226–228 (May/Jun. 1875) [Reply to Douglas (1875)]
Bridgman, Elijah Coleman
1841A Chinese Chrestomathy in the Canton Dialect. Macao. [Samuel Wells Williams’ son lists his father as coauthor (F. Williams 1889:244n); Cordier (1878:774) says, “… Mr. Williams a non-seulement imprimé l’ouvrage, mais il en a écrit à peu près la moitié”.]
Brown, Nathan
1836[1835] “Proposal for Forming a Comparative Vocabulary of All the Indo-Chinese Languages”. Calcutta Christian Observer 5:10.n.p. (Repr., with additional material, as “‘Proposal for Forming a Comparative Vocabulary of All the Indo-Chinese Languages,’ Together With a Plan of the Vocabulary”. Chinese Repository 5:6(1836), Article v1.71–76.)
Brown, Nathan
1837 “Comparison of Indo-Chinese Languages”. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 6:12.1023–1038.
Callery [Calleri], Joseph Marie
(1810–1862) 1841 Systema Phoneticum Scripturae Sinicae. Macao: no pub.
Chalmers, John
1873/74 “Kanghi’s Dictionaries”. China Review 21.335–341.
Chalmers, John
1875Kangshi Tzyhdean Tsuoyaw Tzoonginbeau康字典磋要總音表 [Tables of selected sounds, or spelling tables to Kanghi’s Dictionary]. [Unseen. Compare 1878 There is a two-page extract inserted in Edkins (1880: between 216–217). See the unsigned review in China Review 4.325.]
Chalmers, John
1875/81 “The Rhymes of the Shi-King”. China Review 61.75–82, 61.166–167 (1875/76); 91.136–161, 297–301 (1880/81) [Also printed together as a pamphlet at Hong Kong: The China Review 1877.]
Chalmers, John
1876/77 “Chinese Etymology”. China Review 51.296–303.
Chalmers, John
1878Kangshi Tzyhdean Tsuoyaw康字典撮要. Canton: London Presbyterian Church. [Unseen. Compare 1875b.]
Chao, Yuen Ren
1930 “A System of Tone Letters”. Le Maître Phonétique 451.24–27.
Chao, Yuen Ren
1961 “What Is Correct Chinese?”. Journal of the American Oriental Society 81:3.171–177. (Repr. in Aspects of Chinese Sociolinguistics, selected and introd. by Anwar S. Dil, 72–83. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press 1976.)
Chinese Repository
1835 “An Alphabetic Language for the Chinese”. Chinese Rèpository 4:4, Article III1.167–176. [Unsigned, probably by E. C. Bridgman or S. W. Williams. Pp. 172–176 consist of an essay attributed by the index of the journal to Samuel Dyer.]
Chinese Repository
1836a “System of Orthography for Chinese Words”. Ibid 5:1, Article III1.22–30. [Unsigned, probably by Bridgman or Williams.]
Chinese Repository
1836b “Mode of Teaching the Chinese Language”. Ibid. 5:6, Article III1.61–65. [Unsigned but evidently written by the author of Chinese Repository 1835, probably Bridgman or Williams.]
Chinese Repository
1836c “Remarks and Suggestions Respecting the ‘System of Orthography for Chinese Words,’ Publ. in the Repository for May, 1836”. Ibid. 5:6, Article IV1.65–70. [Unsigned: prob. by Bridgman or Williams.]
Chinese Repository
1838 “On a System of Orthography for the Chinese Language”. Ibid. 6:10, Article IV1.479–486. [Unsigned but evidently written by the author of Chinese Repository 1836a, probably Bridgman or Williams.]
Chinese Repository
1842 “New Orthography Adopted for Representing the Sounds of Chinese Characters, by the Roman Alphabet, in the National Language and the Dialects of Canton and Fukien”. Ibid. 11:1, Article II1.28–44. [Unsigned but probably by Williams or perhaps Bridgman; contains material very similar to S. Williams 1844.]
Chinese Repository
1843 “The Chinese Spoken Language”. Ibid. 12:11, Article II1.582–604. [Unsigned, probably by S. Wells Williams.]
Chyan Dahshin錢大昕
(1728–1804) [No date] 1. “Guu Wu Chingchwenin 古無輕脣音 [There were no labiodental initials in ancient times]”. Yang 1933:1–20.
Chyan Dahshin錢大昕
. [No date] 2. “Sherin Leyger Jy Shuo Bukeeshinn 舌音類格之説不可信 [The claim that lingual initials were of different types is dubious]”. Yang 1933:21–32.
Cordier, Henri
1878–95Bibliotheca Sinica: Dictionnaire bibliographique des ouvrages relatifs à l’empire chinois. Paris: Libraire de la Société Asiatique de Paris. Vol. I1: 1878; II1: 1885; Suppl.: 1895.
Dean, William
1841First Lessons in the Tiechew Dialect. Bangkok: no pub.
Don, A[lexander?]
1882/83 “The Llin-nen (新寧) Dialect”. China Review 111.236–247.
Doty, Elihu
1853Anglo-Chinese Manual with Romanized Colloquial in the Amoy Dialect. Canton: no pub.
Douglas, Carstairs
1873Chinese-English Dictionary of the Vernacular or Spoken Language of Amoy, with the Principal Variations of the Chang-Chew and Chin-Chew Dialects. London: Trübner & Co. (New ed., London: Publishing Office of the Presbyterian Church of England 1899; many repr.)
Douglas, Carstairs
1875 “Boreal Spelling”. Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal 6:2.150–151 (Mar./Apr. 1875) [Reply to Borealis (1874).]
Duffus, William
1883English-Chinese Vocabulary of the Vernacular or Spoken Language of Swatow. Swatow: English Presbyterian Mission Press.
Edkins, Joseph
1853A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese, as Exhibited in the Shanghai Dialect. Shanghai: London Mission Press. (Repr., Shanghai: Presbyterian Mission Press 1868.)
Edkins, Joseph
1857A Grammar of the Chinese Colloquial Language Commonly Called the Mandarin Dialect. Shanghai, London Mission Press. (2nd ed., Shanghai: Presbyterian Mission Press 1864.)
Edkins, Joseph
1869A Vocabulary of the Shanghai Dialect. Shanghai: Presbyterian Misson Press.
Edkins, Joseph
1874 “Old Sounds of the Chinese Characters”. Section V of the Introduction to Williams 1874:xxviii–xxxi.
Edkins, Joseph
1878/79 “On the Syllabic Spelling”. China Review 81.73–74.
Edkins, Joseph
1880 “Influence of Chinese Dialects on the Japanese Pronunciation of the Chinese Part of the Japanese Language”. Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan 81.478–482.
Elman, Benjamin A.
1984From Philosophy to Philology, intellectual and social aspects of change in late imperial China. Harvard East Asian Monographs, #1101. Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard Univ..
Fenyunn. Jianghwu Chyydwu Fenyunn Tsuoyaw Herjyi
江湖尺牘分韻撮要合集 [Collation of “Essential (Characters) Arranged by Rime” and “Letter-Writing on the Road”]. Collation of two rimebooks, influential in Canton, by “Wú Hioh-pú of Yu-shán” and “Wan K’í-shih of Wú-k’í”. Preface dated 1782 [Unseen: cited in S. Williams 1856:xi1.]
Forke, Alfred
1894/95 “A Comparative Study of Northern Chinese Dialects”. China Review 211.181–203.
Forke, Alfred
1903Über einige südchinesische Dialekte und ihr Verhältniss zum Pekinesischen. Berlin: Reichsdruckerei.
de Francis, John
1948 “A Missionary Contribution to Chinese Nationalism”. Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 731.1–34.
de Francis, John
1950Nationalism and Language Reform in China. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.
Gabelentz, Georg von der
1881Chinesische Grammatik. Leipzig: T. O. Weigel.
Gibson, John Campbell
1886A Swatow Index to the Syllabic Dictionary of Chinese by S. Wells Williams, LL.D. and to the Dictionary of the Vernacular of Amoy by Carstairs Douglas, M.A., LL.D. Swatow: English Presbyterian Mission Press.
Giles, Sir Herbert Allen
1877Handbook of the Swatow Dialect with a Vocabulary. Shanghai: no pub.
Giles, Sir Herbert Allen
1892A Chinese-English Dictionary. London: B. Quaritch; Shanghai-Hongkong-Yokohama-Singapore: Kelly & Walsh.
Goangyunn
廣韻1008 Published under Imperial auspices.
Gonçalves, Joaquim Affonso
1833Diccionario Portuguez-China, no estilo vulgar mandarim e classico geral. Macao: Real Collegio de S. José.
de Guignes, Chrêtien Louis Joseph
1853Dictionarium Sinico-Latinum. Hong-Kong: Typis missionis de propaganda fide.
Gulick, John
1870 “On the Best Method of Representing the Unaspirated Mutes of the Mandarin Dialect”. Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal 3:6.153–155 (Nov. 1870).
Imperial Dictionary
1716Kangshi Tzyhdean康熙字典. Compiled under Imperial auspices. Many editions and reprints.
Ingle, James Addison
1899Hankow Syllabary. With references to Giles’ Dictionary. [Hankow?]: Printed by Kung Hing.
Jones, Sir William
1788 “A Dissertation on the Orthography of Asiatick Words in Roman Letters”. Asiatick Researches 11.1–56. (Repr. in The Works of Sir William Jones, III1.235–318. London: Printed for John Stockdale, Piccadilly; and John Walker, Paternoster-Row 1807.)
Karlgren, Bernhard
1915–24Études sur la phonologie chinoise. Uppsala: K. W. Appleberg. [In four parts: Archives D’Etudes Orientales No. 121 (1915); 131 (1916); 191 (1919); 241 (1924).]
Kingsmill, Thomas W.
1877/78 “Grimm’s Laws in Chinese”. China Review 61.342–344.
Klaproth, Julius
1823Asia polyglotta. Paris: A. Schubart.
Kühnert, Franz
1890 “Zur Kenntniss der älteren Lautwerthe des Chinesischen”. Sitzungsberichte der Philosophisch-Historischen Klasse der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vol. 122, part 9. Vienna: K. K. Hofund Staatsdruckerei.
LaTourette, Kenneth Scott
1929A History of Christian Missions in China. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. (Repr., Taipei: Ch’engwen, no year.)
Lechler, Rudolf
1866 “Table of Sounds in the Hakka Dialect”. Appears in Lobscheid 1866–69, Part I1, Introduction, 28–29.
Lepsius, Carl Richard
1863Standard Alphabet for Reducing Unwritten Languages and Foreign Graphic Systems to a Uniform orthography in European Letters. 2nd ed. London & Berlin. (Repr., with a new introd. by J. Alan Kemp. Amsterdam: John Benjamins 1981.)
Leyden, John
1808 “On the Languages and Literatures of the Indo-Chinese Nations”. Asiatick Researches 101.158–289.
Lobscheid, Wilhelm
1866–69English and Chinese Dictionary: With the Punti and Mandarin Pronunciation. Hongkong: Daily Press Office. [4 parts: I1 (1866); II1 (1867); III1 (1868); IV1 (1869).]
Lobscheid, Wilhelm
1871A Chinese and English Dictionary. Hong Kong: Noronha & Sons.
Lockhart, James Haldane Stewart
1881/82 “Canton Syllabary”. China Review 101.312–326.
MacGowan, John
1877English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect. Amoy: A. A. Marcal.
MacIntyre, John Lester
1879/80 “Korean Pronunciation of Chinese”. China Review 71.34–38.
MacIver, Donald
1905A Chinese-English Dictionary: Hakka-Dialect, as Spoken in Kwang-tung Province. [This edition not seen.] (New edition, revised by M. C. MacKenzie. Shanghai: Presbyterian Mission Press 1926.)
Maclay, Robert Samuel & Caleb C. Baldwin
1870An Alphabetic Dictionary of the Chinese Language in the Foochow Dialect. Foochow: Methodist Episcopal Mission Press.
Marshman, Joshua
1809Dissertation on the Characters and Sounds of the Chinese Language; Including tables of the elementary characters, and of the Chinese monosyllables. Serampore: no pub.
Marshman, Joshua
1814Elements of Chinese Grammar, with a Preliminary Dissertation on the Characters, and the Colloquial Medium of the Chinese, and an Appendix Containing the Ta-Hyoh of Confucius with a translation. Serampore: Mission Press.
Medhurst, Walter Henry
1832–37A Dictionary of the Hok-Kёèn Dialect of the Chinese Language, according to the reading and colloquial idioms. Batavia & Macao: The Honorable East India Company. 11 vol.
Medhurst, Walter Henry
1842aChinese and English Dictionary. 21 vols. Batavia: Palapaitan.
Medhurst, Walter Henry
1842bNotices on Chinese Grammar. Book I1: Orthography and Etymology. Batavia: The Mission Press. [Written under the pseudonym Philo-Sinensis. This is the identification penciled on the title page of the copy at Columbia Univ. by a librarian; it may be erroneous.]
Morrison, Robert
1815–23Dictionary of the Chinese Language. 61 vols. Macao: The Honorable East India Company’s Press. [Part I, Vol I1: 1815; Part I, Vol II1: 1822; Part I, Vol III1: 1823; Part II, Vol I1: 1819; Part II, Vol II1: 1820; Part III, English and Chinese: 1822 (Part II repr., 21 vols. Shanghai: London Mission Press, and London: Trübner & Co. 1865).]
Morrison, Robert
1828Vocabulary of the Canton Dialect. Macao: The Honorable East India Company’s Press. [Published in three parts, bound together with no pagination: Part I, “English and Chinese”; Part II “Chinese and English”; Part III “Chinese Words and Phrases”.]
Morrison, William T.
1876An Anglo-Chinese Vocabulary of the Ningpo Dialect. Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press.
Norman, Jerry L. & W. South Coblin
1995 “A New Approach to Chinese Historical Linguistics”. Journal of the American Oriental Society 115:4.576–584.
Parker, Edward Harper
1874/75 “The Hankow Dialect”. China Review 31.308–312.
Parker, Edward Harper
1877/78 “The Concise Dictionary of Chinese”. Ibid. 61.386–394.
Parker, Edward Harper
1878 “The Comparative Study of Chinese Dialects”. Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, n.s., 121.19–50.
Parker, Edward Harper
1879/80a “Syllabary of the Hakka Language or Dialect”. China Review 81.205–217.
Parker, Edward Harper
1879/80b “Canton Syllabary”. China Review 81.363–382.
Parker, Edward Harper
1880/81a “Foochow Syllabary”. China Review 91.63–82.
Parker, Edward Harper
1880/81b “Characterless Chinese Words”. China Review 91.85–88.
Parker, Edward Harper
1882/83 “The Dialect of Eastern Sz Ch’uan”. Ibid. 91.112–120.
Parker, Edward Harper
1883 “K’ang-hi’s System of Initials Compared with the Sanskrit Consonants”. 3 parts: Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal 14:4.325–328 (Jul./Aug. 1883); 14:5.414–417 (Sept./Oct. 1883); 14:6.476–478 (Nov./ Dec. 1883).
Parker, Edward Harper
1887 “The ‘Yellow’ Languages”. Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan 151.13–49.
Parker, Edward Harper
1892 “Philological Essay”. Giles 1892: xiv–xlvi.
Parker, Edward Harper
1894/95a “Reply to Dr. Edkins”. China Review 211.276.
Parker, Edward Harper
1894/95b “Notes by Mr. E. H. Parker”. China Review 211.415–416.
Peywen yunnfuu
佩文韻府1711 Prepared under Imperial auspices.
Piton, Charles Ph
1879/80 “Remarks on the Syllabary of the Hakka Dialect by Mr. E. H. Parker”. China Review 81.316–318.
Pulleyblank, Edwin G.
1995 “European Studies on Chinese Phonology: the First Phase”. Europe Studies China ed. by Ming Wilson & John Cayley, 339–367. London: Han-Shan Tang Books, The Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation for International Scholarly Exchange.
Rask, Rasmus Kristian
1818Undersögelse om det Gamle Nordiske eller Islandske Sprogs Oprindelse. Copenhagen: Gyldendal. (Translated as Investigation of the Origin of the Old Norse or Icelandic Language by Niels Ege, Copenhagen: The Linguistic Circle of Copenhagen 1993.)
Rémusat, Jean Pierre Abel
1822Elémens de la Grammaire Chinoise, ou principes généraux de kou-wen ou style antique, et du kouan-hoa, c’est-àdire, de la langue commune généralement usitée dans l’empire chinois. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. (Repr., Paris: Maisonneuve et Cie 1857.) [Preface dated 1820.]
Ride, Lindsay
1957Robert Morrison: The scholar and the man. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Univ. Press.
Schaank, Simon Hartwich
1897Het Loeh-Foeng-Dialect. Leiden, E. J. Brill. (English transl. by Bennett M. Lindauer as The Lu-Feng Dialect of Hakka. Tokyo: Inst. for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa 1979.)
Schaank, Simon Hartwich
1897–1902 “Ancient Chinese Phonetics”. T’oung Pao 8.361–377, 8.457–486 (1897); 9.28–57 (1898), and “Supplementary Note”, T’oung Pao Ser. 2:3.106–108 (1902).
Shyrwuu In. Hueyjyi Yeaswu Tong Shyrwuu In
彙集雅俗通十五音 [Fifteen initials, in accordance with which the learned and vulgar are gathered and arranged] 1818 [No publication information. Attributed to one Shieh Shiowlan 謝秀嵐, otherwise unknown.]
Soothill, William E.
1899The Student’s Four Thousand 字 and General Pocket Dictionary. Shanghai: Presbyterian Mission Press.
Summers, James
1853The Gospel of Saint John in the Chinese Language, According to the Dialect of Shanghai, Espressed in the Roman Alphabetic Character. [No publication information.]
Summers, James
1863 “On the Application of the Roman Alphabet to the Languages and Various Spoken Dialects of China and Japan”. The Chinese and Japanese Repository 1:3, Article III1.112–124.
Tzyhhuey
字彙1615? Attributed to Mei Ingtzuoh 梅膺祚 (fl.1570–1615).
Varo, Francisco
1703Arte de la Lengua Mandarin. Canton: [no publisher given]. [Unseen. Translation by W. South Coblin & Joseph A. Levi, Grammar of the Mandarin Language; with an introductory essay by Sandra Azmayesh-Fard, in progress.]
Volpicelli, Zenone
1896Chinese Phonology, an attempt to discover the sounds of the ancient language and to recover the lost rhymes of China. Shanghai: The China Gazette.
Volpicelli, Zenone
1898 “Prononciation Ancienne du Chinois”. Actes du onzième Congrès international des orientalistes, 2e section, Langues et archeologie de l’extrême-Orient, 115–190. Paris: E. Leroux. [This article seems to be unknown to the scholarly community today.]
Wade, Sir Thomas Francis
1859The Hsin Ching Lu, or, Book of Experiments; being the first of a series of contributions to the study of Chinese. Hong Kong: The Office of the “China Mail”.
Williams, Frederick Wells
1889The Life and Letters of Samuel Wells Williams, LL.D. – Missionary, diplomatist, sinologue. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons & London: The Knickerbocker Press.
Williams, Samuel Wells
1844An English and Chinese Vocabulary, in the Court Dialect. Macao: The Chinese Repository.
Williams, Samuel Wells
1856A Tonic Dictionary of the Chinese Language in the Canton Dialect. Canton: The Chinese Repository.
Williams, Samuel Wells
1874A Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese Language. Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press.
Wylie, Alexander
1867Memorials of Protestant Missionaries to the Chinese: giving a list of their publications, and obituary notices of the deceased. Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press.
Yang Shuhdar楊樹達
1933Guu Shengyunn Taoluenn Jyi古聲韻討論集 [Discussions on ancient phonology]. Peiping: no pub. given. (Repr., Taipei: Taiwan Student Book Co. 1965.)
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2006. Applied Linguistics in China. In Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, ► pp. 350 ff.
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2022. A Chinese textbook of Manchu and its Western translations. Language & History 65:2 ► pp. 134 ff.
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