Cover not available
Part of
Contemporary Trends in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics: Selected papers from the Hispanic Linguistic Symposium 2015
Edited by Jonathan E. MacDonald
[Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics 15] 2018
► pp. 237–258

Chapter 11
Voice onset time and the child foreign language learner of Spanish

 | University of Minnesota
Stop consonants are one of the most investigated sound classes in second language speech production studies. Robust age of acquisition effects are documented in the literature base; however, the advantage of early learners has been primarily documented in second language, not foreign language, contexts. In order to further tease apart the variables of age and context, this paper compares the VOT values of /p, t, k/ of a cross-sectional sample of child, foreign language learners of Spanish with those of Spanish-English bilinguals. Learner productions did not differ from those of native speaking peers, yet there was a significant interaction of first language and grade level, suggesting that age of acquisition alone is insufficient to explain outcomes. Quantity of input, in both the first and second/foreign language, is explored as a possible explanation.
Keywords: voice onset time, second language phonology, early second language learning, language immersion education
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Literature review
    • 2.1VOT
    • 2.2L2/FL acquisition of VOT
      • 2.2.1Age and L2/FL acquisition of VOT
      • 2.2.2Context of learning and L2/FL acquisition of VOT
      • 2.2.3Language use patterns and L2/FL acquisition of VOT
      • 2.2.4Proficiency level and L2/FL acquisition of VOT
  • 3.Research design
    • 3.1Participants
    • 3.2Data collection and analysis
  • 4.Results
    • 4.1Absolute VOT
    • 4.2Relative VOT
  • 5.Discussion
  • 6.Conclusions
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • References
  • Appendix
Published online: 14 February 2018
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/ihll.15.12men
References (73)
References
ACTFL. (2012). ACTFL proficiency guidelines 2012. Alexandria, VA: ACTFL.Google Scholar
Au, T. K., Knightly, L. M., Jun, S., & Oh, J. S. (2002). Overhearing a language during childhood. Psychological Science, 13, 238–243. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Au, T. K., Oh, J. S., Knightly, L. M., Jun, S., & Romo, L. F. (2008). Salvaging a childhood language. Journal of Memory and Language, 58, 998–1011. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bailey, P., & Haggard, M. (1980). Perception-production relations in the voicing contrast for initial stops in 3-year-olds. Phonetica, 37, 377–396. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Baker, W., & Trofimovich, P. (2005). Interaction of native- and second-language vowel system(s) in early and late bilinguals. Language and Speech, 48, 1–27. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67, 1–48. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Broner, M. (2000). Impact of interlocutor and task on first and second language use in a Spanish immersion program. Unpublished PhD dissertation. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.Google Scholar
Brown, H. D. (1987). Principles of language learning and teaching (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Caramazza, A., Yeni-Komshian, G., Zurif, E., & Carbone, E. (1973). The acquisition of a new phonological contrast: The case of stop consonants in French-English bilinguals. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 54, 421–428. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Choi, H. (2003). Prosody induced acoustic variation in English stop consonants. In M. J. Solé, D. Recasens, & J. Romero (Eds.), Proceedings of the 15th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Barcelona, Spain (pp. 2661–2664). Retrieved from <[URL]>
Crane, M., & Alvord, S. (2012, February). Acquisition of Spanish voiceless stops in extended stays abroad. Paper presented at the Current Approaches to Spanish and Portuguese Second Language Phonology conference, Columbia, SC.
Dalton-Puffer, C., Kaltenboeck, G., & Smit, U. (1997). Learner attitudes and L2 pronunciation in Austria. World Englishes, 16, 115–128. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dunkel, H. (1948). Second language learning. Boston, MA: Ginn & Company.Google Scholar
Díaz-Campos, M. (2004). Context of learning in the acquisition of Spanish second language phonology. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26, 249–273. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2006). The effect of style in second language phonology: An analysis of segmental acquisition in study abroad and regular-classroom students. In C. A. Klee, & T. L. Face (Eds.), Selected proceedings of the 7th Conference on the Acquisition of Spanish and Portuguese as First and Second Languages (pp. 26–39). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Google Scholar
Díaz-Campos, M., & Lazar, N. (2003). Acoustic analysis of voiceless initial stops in the speech of study abroad and regular class students: Context of learning as a variable in second language acquisition. In P. Kempchinksy, & C. -E. Piñeros (Eds.), Theory, practice, and acquisition: Papers from the 6th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium and the 5th Conference on the Acquisition of Spanish and Portuguese (pp. 352–370). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar
Elliot, A. R. (1995a). Field independence/dependence, hemispheric specialization, and attitude in relation to pronunciation accuracy in Spanish as a foreign language. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 356–371. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1995b). Foreign language phonology: Field independence, attitude, and the success of formal instruction in Spanish pronunciation. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 530–542. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Flege, J. E. (1987a). A critical period for learning to pronounce foreign languages? Applied Linguistics, 8, 162–177. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1987b). The production of “new” and “similar” phones in a foreign language: Evidence for the effect of equivalence classification. Journal of Phonetics, 15, 47–65.Google Scholar
(1991). Age of learning affects the authenticity of voice-onset time (VOT) in stop consonants produced in a second language. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 89, 395–411. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1992). Speech learning in a second language. In C. A. Ferguson, L. Mann, & C. Stoel-Gammon (Eds.), Phonological development: Models, research, implications (pp. 565–603). Timonium, MD: New York Press.Google Scholar
(1995). Second language speech learning: Theory, findings, and problems. In W. Strange (Ed.), Speech perception and linguistic experience: Issues in cross-language research (pp. 233–277). Timonium, MD: York Press.Google Scholar
(1999). Age of learning and second language speech. In D. Birdsong (Ed.), Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis, (pp. 101–132). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Flege, J., & Eefting, W. (1986). Linguistic and developmental effects on the production and perception of stop consonants. Phonetica, 43, 155–171. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Flege, J. E., & Eefting, W. (1987a). Production and perception of English stops by native Spanish speakers. Journal of Phonetics, 15, 67–83.Google Scholar
Flege, J., & Eefting, W. (1987b). Cross-language switching in stop consonant production and perception by Dutch speakers of English. Speech Communication, 6, 185–202. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Flege, J. E., Frieda, E. M., & Nozawa, T. (1997). Amount of native-language (L1) use affects the pronunciation of an L2. Journal of Phonetics, 25, 169–186. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Flege, J., & Hillenbrand, J. (1984). Limits on pronunciation accuracy in adult foreign language speech production. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 76, 708–721. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Flege, J. E., & MacKay, I. R. A. (2004). Perceiving vowels in a second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26, 1–34. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Flege, J. E., Schirru, C., & MacKay, I. R. A. (2003). Interaction between the native and second language phonetic subsystems. Speech Communication, 40, 467–491. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Fokes, J., Bond, J., & Steinberg, M. (1985). Acquisition of the English voicing contrast by Arab children. Language and Speech, 28, 81–92. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Fortune, T. W. (2001). Understanding immersion students’ oral language use as a mediator of social interaction in the classroom. Unpublished PhD dissertation. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.Google Scholar
Fortune, T. W., & Tedick, D. J. (2015). Oral proficiency assessment of English-proficiency K-8 Spanish immersion students. The Modern Language Journal, 99, 637–655. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
González-Bueno, M. (1997). The effects of formal instruction on the acquisition of Spanish stop consonants. In W. R. Glass, & A. T. Pérez-Leroux (Eds.), Contemporary perspectives on the acquisition of Spanish, Vol. 2: Production, processing, and comprehension (pp. 57–75). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar
Grosjean, F. (1982). Life with two languages. An introduction to bilingualism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hedgcock, J. S., & Lefkowitz, N. (2000). Overt and covert prestige in the French language classroom: When is it good to sound bad? Applied Language Learning, 11, 75–97.Google Scholar
Keating, P. (1984). Phonetic and phonological representation of stop consonant voicing. Language, 60, 286–319. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kent, R. D., & Forner, L. L. (1980). Speech segment durations in sentence recitations by children and adults. Journal of Phonetics, 8, 157–168,Google Scholar
Kessinger, R. H., & Blumstein, S. E. (1997). Effects of speaking rate on voice-onset time in Thai, French, and English. Journal of Phonetics, 24, 143–168. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kewley-Port, D., & Preston, M. (1984). Early apical stop production: A voice onset time analysis. Journal of Phonetics, 5, 115–134.Google Scholar
Knightly, L. M., Jun, S., Oh, J. S., & Au, T. K. (2003). Production benefits of childhood overhearing. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 114, 465–474. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lenneberg, E. (1967). Biological foundations of language. New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar
Lennon, P. (1990). Investigating fluency in EFL: A quantitative approach. Language Learning, 40, 387–417. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lisker, L., & Abramson, A. (1964). A cross-language study of voicing in initial stops: Acoustical measurements. Word, 20, 384–422. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1967). Some effects of context on voice onset time in English stops. Language and Speech, 10, 1–28. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lord, G. (2008). Second language acquisition and first language phonological modificiation. In J. Bruhn de Garavito, & E. Valenzuela (Eds.), Selected proceedings of the 10th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium (pp. 184–193). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Google Scholar
Long, M. (1990). Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 251–285. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lybeck, K. E. (2002). The role of acculturation and social networks in the acquisition of second langauge pronunciation. Unpublished PhD dissertation. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.Google Scholar
Mack, M. (1989). Consonant and vowel perception and production: Early English-French bilinguals and English monolinguals. Perception and psychophysics, 46, 187–200. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mack, M., Bott, S., & Boronat, C. (1995). Mother, I’d rather do it myself, maybe: An analysis of voice-onset time produced by early French-English bilinguals. Ideal, 8, 23–55.Google Scholar
Major, R. C. (1992). Losing English as a first language. The Modern Language Journal, 76, 190–208. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Menke, M. R. (2015). How native do they sound? An acoustic analysis of the Spanish vowels of elementary Spanish immersion students. Hispania, 98, 802–822. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Moyer, A. (2014). Exceptional outcomes in L2 phonology: The critical factors of learner engagement and self-regulation. Applied Linguistics, 35, 418–440. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Munro, M. J., & Derwing, T. M. (1995). Foreign accent, comprehensibility, and intelligibility in the speech of second language learners. Language Learning, 45, 73–97. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1998). The effects of speaking rate on listener evaluation of native and foreign-accented speech. Language Learning, 48, 159–182. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Plonsky, L., & Oswald, F. L. (2014). How big is “big”? Interpreting effect sizes in L2 research. Language Learning, 64, 878–912. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Potowski, K. (2002). Language use in a Spanish-English Dual-Immersion Classroom: A Sociolinguistic Perspective. Unpublished PhD dissertation. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL.Google Scholar
(2004). Student Spanish use and investment in a dual immersion classroom: Implications for second language acquisition and heritage language maintenance. The Modern Language Journal, 88, 75–101. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Romaine, S. (1995). Bilingualism. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Schmidt, A., & Flege, J. (1996). Speaking rate effects on stops produced by Spanish and English monolinguals and Spanish/English bilinguals. Phonetica, 53, 162–179.Google Scholar
Simonet, M., Casillas, J. V., & Díaz, Y. (2014). The effects of stress/accent of VOT depend on language (English/Spanish), consonant (/d/, /t/) and linguistic experience (monolinguals, bilinguals). In N. Campbell, D. Gibbon, & D. Hirst (Eds.), Social and linguistic speech prosody. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on speech prosody (pp. 202–206). Dublin, Ireland.Google Scholar
Stölten, K., Abrahamsson, N., & Hyltenstam, K. (2015). Effects of age and speaking rate on voice onset time. The production of voiceless stops by near-native L2 speakers. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 37, 71–100. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tarone, E., & Swain, M. (1995). A sociolinguistic perspective on second language use in immersion classrooms. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 166–178. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Thornburgh, D. F., & Ryalls, J. H. (1998). Voice onset time in Spanish-English bilinguals: Early versus late learners of English. Journal of Communication Disorders, 31, 215–2219. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Trofimovich, P., & Baker, W. (2006). Learning second language suprasegmentals: Effect of L2 experience on prosody and fluency characteristics of L2 speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28, 1–30. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Volaitis, L. E., & Miller, J. L. (1992). Phonetic prototypes: Influence of place of articulation and speaking rate on the internal structure of voicing categories. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 92, 723–735. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Williams, L. (1977). The perception of stop consonant voicing by Spanish-English bilinguals. Perception and Psychophysics, 21, 289–297. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Xu, R. (2003). Measuring explained variation in linear mixed effects models. Statistics in Medicine, 22, 3527–3541. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zampini, M. (1998). The relationship between the production and perception of L2 Spanish stops. Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education, 3, 85–100.Google Scholar
Zlatin, M. A. (1974). Voicing contrast: Perceptual and productive VOT characteristics of adults. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 56, 981–994. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zlatin, M., & Koenigsknecht, R. (1976). Development of the voicing contrast: A comparison of voice onset time in stop perception and production. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 19, 93–111. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zuengler, J. (1998). Identity markers and L2 pronunciation. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 10, 33–50. DOI logoGoogle Scholar