Article In:
ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics: Online-First Articles

Adolescents’ informal exposure to English as a second language in the context of Galicia

Effects on vocabulary, grammar, and writing

ORCID logo | University of Vigo
 | University of Washington
This study examines the effects of informal English exposure on vocabulary, grammar, and writing. A total of 178 Galician adolescent learners of English completed a placement test, a language background and an out-of-school English activities questionnaire, and three language tasks: a grammaticality judgement test, a vocabulary test, and a writing task. Findings revealed that the most common out-of-school activities were listening to music, watching films without subtitles, and gaming. Positive correlations were found between learners’ performance on the language tasks and the activities of watching films without subtitles, watching films with captions, reading, writing, and, to a smaller extent, listening to music, gaming, and speaking online. Gender-related differences were noticed in the frequency of some out-of-school activities and the correlations with learners’ performance on the three language tasks.
Keywords: adolescent learners, English as a second language, gender-related differences, informal learning, out-of-school activities, writing skills
Article outline
  • Introduction
  • Out-of-school English
  • Out-of-school English among adolescents
    • Out-of-school English among adolescents and L2 vocabulary knowledge
    • Out-of-school English among adolescents and L2 grammar knowledge
    • Out-of-school English among adolescents and L2 writing
    • Out-of-school English among adolescents and gender
  • The study
    • Participants
  • Materials and procedures
    • Questionnaires
    • Language tests
  • Procedures
  • Data analysis
  • Results
    • Type and frequency of out-of-school English activities
  • Discussion
    • Type and frequency of out-of-school English activities
    • Pedagogical implications
    • Limitations of the study
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • Author queries
  • References
This content is being prepared for publication; it may be subject to changes.
References (81)
References
Alonso, R. (2023). Out-of-school contact with L2 English across four educational levels. Porta Linguarum: An International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning, 40 1, 93–112. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Allen, D. (Ed.). (2001). Quick Oxford Placement Test. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Arndt, H. L. (2019). Informal second language learning: The role of engagement, proficiency, attitudes and motivation. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Oxford.
Azzolini, D., Campregher, S., & Madia, J. E. (2020). Formal instruction vs informal exposure: What matters more for teenagers’ acquisition of English as a second language? Research Papers in Education, 37 (2), 1–29. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Barbee, M. (2013). Extracurricular L2 input in a Japanese EFL context: Exposure, attitudes, and motivation. Second Language Studies, 32 (1), 1–58. [URL]
Benson, P. (2011). Language learning and teaching beyond the classroom: An introduction to the field. In P. Benson & H. Reinders (Eds.), Beyond the language classroom (pp. 7–16). Palgrave MacMillan. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Briggs, J. G. (2015). Out-of-class language contact and vocabulary gain in a study abroad context. System, 53 1, 129–140. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cobb, T. & Horst, M. (2011). Does Word Coach coach words? CALICO Journal, 28 (3), 639–661. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Council of Europe. (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment — Companion volume, Council of Europe Publishing, available at [URL]
de Bot, K., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (2011). Researching second language development from a dynamic systems theory perspective. In M. Verspoor, K. de Bot, & W. Lowie (Eds.), A dynamic approach to second language development: Methods and techniques (pp. 5–23). John Benjamins Publishing. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
De Wilde, V., Brysbaert, M., & Eyckmans, J. (2020a). Learning English through out-of-school exposure: How do word-related variables and proficiency influence receptive vocabulary learning? Language Learning, 70 (2), 349–381. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
De Wilde, V., Brysbaert, M. & Eyckmans, J. (2020b). Learning English through out-of-school exposure: Which levels of language proficiency are attained and which types of input are important? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23 (1), 171–185. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
De Wilde, V., Brysbaert, M., & Eyckmans, J. (2021). Young learners’ L2 English after the onset of instruction: Longitudinal development of L2 proficiency and the role of individual differences. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 24 (3), 439–453. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
De Wilde, V., & Eyckmans, J. (2017). Game on! Young learners’ incidental language learning of English prior to instruction. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7 (4), 673–694. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ellis, R. (2009). Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language. In R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. Erlam, J. Philp, & H. Reinders (Eds.), Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching (pp. 31–64). Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ellis, R., & Barkhuizen, G. (2005). Analysing learner language. Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
European Commission. (2012). First European survey on language competences: Education and training. Publications Office of the European Union.Google Scholar
Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics. Sage.Google Scholar
Fievez, I., Montero Perez, M., Cornillie, F., & Desmet, P. (2023). Promoting incidental vocabulary learning through watching a French Netflix series with glossed captions. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 36 (1–2), 26–51. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
González-Fernández, B., & Schmitt, N. (2015). How much collocation knowledge do L2 learners have? The effects of frequency and amount of exposure. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 166 (1), 94–126. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hannibal Jensen, S. (2017). Gaming as an English language learning resource among young children in Denmark. CALICO Journal, 34 (1), 1–19. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Housen, A., & Kuiken, F. (2009). Complexity, accuracy, and fluency in second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 30 (4), 461–473. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hsu, C. (2020). Gaming language and how it is characterized. BA Thesis. University of Lund.
Hunt, K. (1970). Syntactic maturity in schoolchildren and adults. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 35 (1), iii–67. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kaatari, H., Larsson, T., Wang, Y., Acikara-Eichoff, S. & Sundqvist, P. (2023). Exploring the effects of target-language extramural activities on students’ written production. Journal of Second Language Writing, 62 1, 101062. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Koolstra, C. M., Peeters, A. L., Spinhof, H. (2002). The pros and cons of dubbing and subtitling. European Journal of Communication, 17 1, 325–354. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kuppens, A. H. (2010). Incidental foreign language acquisition from media exposure. Learning, Media and Technology, 35 (1), 65–85. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kusyk, M. (2017). The development of complexity, accuracy & fluency in L2 written production through informal participation in online activities. CALICO Journal 34 (1), 75–96. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lee, J. S. (2019). Quantity and diversity of informal digital learning of English. Language Learning & Technology, 23 (1), 114–126. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lee, M., & Révész, A. (2018). Promoting grammatical development through textually enhanced captions: An eye-tracking study. The Modern Language Journal, 102 (3), 557–577. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lindgren, E., & Muñoz, C. (2013). The influence of exposure, parents, and linguistic distance on young European learners’ foreign language comprehension. International Journal of Multilingualism, 10 (1), 105–29. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Liu, L., & Lee, J. S. (2023). Why does IDLE make ELF learners gritty? In D. Toffoli, G. Sockett, & M. Kusyk (Eds.), Language learning and leisure: Informal language learning in the digital age (pp. 241–268). De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lyrigkou, C. (2019). Not to be overlooked: Agency in informal language contact. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 13 (3), 237–52. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2023). Informal second language learning and EFL learners’ spoken use of discourse markers. In D. Toffoli, G. Sockett & M. Kusyk (Eds.), Language learning and leisure: Informal language learning in the digital age (pp. 91–120). De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Manchón, R., & Polio, C. (2021). L2 writing and language learning. In R. Manchón & C. Polio (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition and writing (pp. 1–6). Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mayer, R. (Ed.). (2014). The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McLean, S., & Kramer, B. (2015). The creation of a new vocabulary levels test. Shiken, 19 (2), 1–11.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2020). Boys like games and girls like movies: Age and gender differences in out-of-school contact with English. Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada, 33 (1), 171–201. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C. & Cadierno, T. (2021). How do differences in exposure affect English language learning? A comparison of teenagers in two learning environments. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 11 (2), 185–212. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C., Cadierno, T., & Casas, I. (2018). Different starting points for early English language learning: A comparative study of Danish and Spanish young learners. Language Learning, 68 (4), 1076–1109. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nation, I. S. P. (1983). Testing and teaching vocabulary. Guidelines, 5 (1), 12–25.Google Scholar
(2012). The BNC/COCA word family lists. Available at: [URL] (Accessed July 28, 2023).
Nie, K., Fu, J., Rehman, H., & Zaighman, G. H. K. (2022). An empirical study of the effects of incidental vocabulary learning through listening to songs. Frontiers in Psychology, 13 1, 891146–891146. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L. (2009). Towards an organic approach to investigating CAF in instructed SLA: The case of complexity. Applied Linguistics, 30 (4), 555–578. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Olsson, E. (2016). On the impact of extramural English and CLIL on productive vocabulary. PhD dissertation. University of Gothenburg.
Olsson, E., & Sylvén, L. K. (2015). Extramural English and academic vocabulary. A longitudinal study of CLIL and non-CLIL students in Sweden. Apples — Journal of Applied Language Studies, 9 (2), 77–103. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pattemore, A., & Muñoz, C. (2020). Learning L2 constructions from captioned audio-visual exposure: The effect of learner-related factors. System, 93 1, 102303. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pavia, N., Webb, S., & Faez, F. (2019). Incidental vocabulary learning through listening to songs. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 41 (4), 745–768. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Peters, E. (2018). The effect of out-of-school exposure to English language media on learners’ vocabulary knowledge. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 169 (1), 142–167. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Peters, E., Heynen, E., & Puimège, E. (2016). Learning vocabulary through audiovisual input: The differential effect of L1 subtitles and captions. System, 63 1, 134–148. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Peters, E., & Webb, S. (2018). Incidental vocabulary acquisition through viewing L2 television and factors that affect learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40 (3), 551–577. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Peters, E., Noreillie, A., Heylen, K., Bulté, B., & Desmet, P. (2019). The impact of instruction and out-of-school exposure to foreign language input on learners’ vocabulary knowledge in two languages. Language Learning, 69 (3), 747–782. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Plonsky, L. (2015). Statistical power, p values, descriptive statistics, and effect sizes. A “back-to-basics” approach to advancing quantitative methods in L2 research. In L. Plonsky (Ed.), Advancing quantitative methods in second language research (pp. 23–45). Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Puimège, E., & Peters, E. (2019). Learners’ English vocabulary knowledge prior to formal instruction: The role of learner-related and word-related variables. Language Learning, 69 (4), 943–977. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pujadas, G., & Muñoz, C. (2019). Extensive viewing of captioned and subtitled TV series: a study of L2 vocabulary learning by adolescents. The Language Learning Journal, 47 (4), 479–496. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Reinhardt, J. & Ryu, J. (2013). Using social network-mediated bridging activities to develop socio-pragmatic awareness in elementary Korean. International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching, 3 (3), 18–33. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sainani, R. (2012). Dealing with non-normal data. The American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 4 (12), 1001–1005. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N., Schmitt, D., & Clapham, C. (2001). Developing and exploring the behaviour of two new versions of the Vocabulary Levels Test. Language Testing, 18 (1), 55–88. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schurz, A., & Sundqvist, P. (2022). Connecting extramural English with ELT: Teacher reports from Austria, Finland, France. and Sweden. Applied Linguistics, 43 (5), 934–957. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schwarz, M. (2020). Beyond the walls: A mixed methods study of teenagers’ extramural English practices and their vocabulary knowledge. Ph.D. dissertation. Vienna University.
(2023). Learner perspectives on informal L2 vocabulary learning. In D. Toffoli, G. Sockett & M. Kusyk (Eds.), Language learning and leisure: Informal language learning in the digital age (pp. 159–184). De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sockett, G. (2014). The online informal learning of English. Palgrave Macmillan. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2023). Learner engagement and learner change under lockdown. In D. Toffoli, G. Sockett & M. Kusyk, (Eds.), Language learning and leisure: Informal language learning in the digital age (pp. 359–378). De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sundqvist, P. (2009). Extramural English matters: Out-of-school English and its impact on Swedish ninth graders’ oral proficiency and vocabulary. PhD dissertation. Karlstad University.
(2019). Commercial-off-the-shelf games in the digital wild and L2 learner vocabulary. Language Learning & Technology 23 (1), 87–113. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2024). Extramural English as an individual difference variable in L2 research: Methodology matters. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 1–13. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sundqvist, P., & Sylvén, L. K. (2014). Language-related computer use: Focus on young L2 English learners in Sweden. ReCALL, 26 (1), 3–20. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2016). Extramural English in teaching and learning: From theory to practice. Palgrave Macmillan. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sundqvist, P., & Wikström, P. (2015). Out-of-school digital gameplay and in-school L2 English vocabulary outcomes. System, 51 1, 65–76. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sylvén, L. K., & Sundqvist, P. (2012). Gaming as extramural English L2 learning and L2 proficiency among young learners. ReCALL, 24 (3), 302–321. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Toffoli, D. (2023). Learner profiles and ISSL trajectories. In D. Toffoli, G. Sockett, & M. Kusyk (Eds.), Language learning and leisure: Informal language learning in the digital age (pp. 291–324). De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Toffoli, D., & Sockett, G. (2010). How non-specialist students of English practice informal learning using web 2.0 tools. ASp, 58 1, 125–144. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Toffoli, D., Sockett, G. & Kusyk, M. (Eds.) (2023). Language learning and leisure: Informal language learning in the digital age. De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Thorne, S. & Reinhard, J. (2008). “Bridging activities,” new media literacies, and advanced foreign language proficiency. CALICO Journal 25 (3), 558–572. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Thorne, S. & Hellermann, J. (2022). Interfacing formal education and language learning beyond the classroom. In H. Reinders, C. Lai & P. Sundqvist (Eds.), The Routlege handbook of language learning and teaching beyond the classroom (pp. 36–51). Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Webb, S., & Rodgers, M. P. H. (2009). Vocabulary demands of television programs. Language Learning, 59 (2), 335–366. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wisniewska, N., & Mora, J. C. (2020). Can captioned video benefit second language pronunciation? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 42 (3), 599–624. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wouters, M., Bollansée, L., Prophète, E. & Peters, E. (2024). The relationship between extramural English and learners’ listening comprehension, reading comprehension, motivation, and anxiety. Vigo International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 21 1, 165–193. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Yi, Y. (2005). Asian adolescents’ out-of-school encounters with English and Korean literacy. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 15 (1), 57–77. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Yibokou, K. (2023). Influence of television series on pronunciation. In D. Toffoli, G. Sockett & M. Kusyk (Eds.), Language learning and leisure: Informal language learning in the digital age (pp. 121–142). De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar