Diachrony of code switching stages in medieval business accounts
The Mercers’ livery company of London
This article presents the results of a diachronic survey on the multilingual account books authored by the wardens
of the Mercers’ premier livery company of the City of London from 1390 to 1464. The study deployed here applies an extended
version of Wright’s three-stage model of code switched business writing that introduces a previous phase of Romance monolingualism
and a later phase of English monolingualism. It is found that the change from Latin and French to English as the new language of
business record in the London Mercers’ archives was orderly and gradual rather than straightforward, and characterised by a less
predictable intervening code switching period. The analysis is of considerable value for expanding our knowledge of medieval
written multilingualism, as well as for the development of English as an administrative language.
Article outline
- 1.Introduction: Toward a linguistic study of code switching in 14th- and 15th-century business manuscripts from London
- 2.Historical background: The evolution of the Mercers of London within medieval multilingual communities
- 3.Linguistic framework: Romance-English code switching in the domain of business
- 4.Sources: The Wardens’ Accounts of the Mercers’ livery company of London
- 5.Data: Code switching stages in late medieval business accounts by the Mercers of London
- 5.1Early stage of mixed business writing in the Mercers’ Wardens’ Accounts
- 5.2Later stage of mixed business writing in the Mercers’ Wardens’ Accounts
- 5.3Moribund stage of mixed business writing in the Mercers’ Wardens’ Accounts
- 6.Results: From early intraword switching to late intersentential switching
- 7.Conclusion: Code switched business writing in between written monolingualisms
- Notes
-
References
References
Anonymous
1811 The Life of Sir Richard Whittington, Knight, and Four Times Lord Mayor of London Compiled from Authentic Documents. Harrow: Flower.
Barlow, Frank
1986 Thomas Becket. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Barron, Caroline
1969 Richard Whittington: The Man behind the Myth.
Studies in London History Presented to Philip Jones ed. by
Albert Hollaender &
William Kellaway, 197–248. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Barron, Caroline
1995 England and the Low Countries, 1327–1477. In
Caroline Barron &
Nigel Saul, eds., 1–28.
Barron, Caroline
1996 The Expansion of Education in 15th-Century London.
The Cloister and the World: Essays in Medieval History in Honour of Barbara Harvey ed. by
John Blair &
Brian Golding, 219–245. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Barron, Caroline & Nigel Saul
eds. 1995 England and the Low Countries in the Late Medieval Ages. Stroud: Alan Sutton Publishing.
Baugh, Albert & Thomas Cable
2012 [1935] A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London & New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Brand, Paul
2000 The Languages of the Law in Later Medieval England. In
David Trotter, ed., 63–76.
Braunmüller, Kurt & Gisella Ferraresi
Bullock, Barbara & Jacqueline Toribio
eds. 2009 The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Code-Switching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Burrow, John & Thorlac Turville-Petre
1992 A Book of Middle English. Oxford: Blackwell.
Carus-Wilson, Eleanora
1933 The Origins and Early Development of the Merchant Adventurers’ Organisation in London as Shown in their Own Medieval Records.
The Economic History Review 4:2.147–176.
Chambers, Raymond & Marjorie Daunt
eds. 1931 A Book of London English, 1384–1425. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Clanchy, Michael
1983 England and its Rulers, 1066–1272: Foreign Lordship and National Identity. London: Fontana.
Clanchy, Michael
2013 [1979] From Memory to Written Record: England, 1066–1307. 3rd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Clark, Cecily
1992 Onomastics.
The Cambridge History of the English Language: Volume II, 1066–1476 ed. by
Norman Blake, 542–606. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cobb, Henry
ed. 1961 The Local Port Book of Southampton for 1439–1440. Southampton: Southampton University Press.
Colvin, Howard
1971 Building Accounts of King Henry III. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Cooper, Chris
1984 The Archives of the City of London Livery Companies and Related Organisations.
Archives 16:72.323–353.
Coulton, George
ed. 1918 Social Life in Britain from the Conquest to the Reformation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Creaton, Heather
1976 The Wardens’ Accounts of the Mercers’ Company of London, 13471, 1391–1464. University of London, doctoral dissertation.
Crespo García, Begoña
2000 Historical Background of Multilingualism and its Impact on English. In
David Trotter, ed., 23–35.
Dorian, Nancy
1981 Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic Dialect. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Duggan, Anne
ed. 2000 The Correspondence of Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1162–1170 (=
Oxford Medieval Texts, 60). 21 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Ekwall, Eilert
ed. 1951 Two Early London Subsidy Rolls. Lund: Gleerup.
Fisher, John
1992 A Language Policy for Lancastrian England.
Proceedings of the Modern Language Association 107:5.1168–1180.
Fisher, John
1996 The Emergence of Standard English. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press.
Fox Bourne, Henry
1866 English Merchants: Memoirs in Illustration of the Progress of British Commerce, Volume I1. London: Bentley.
Gardner-Chloros, Penelope
2009 Code-Switching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Given-Wilson, Chris
ed. 2005 The Parliament Rolls of Medieval England, 1275–1504: Volume VII (Richard II, 1385–1397). Woodbridge: Boydell.
Gras, Norman
1918 The Early English Customs System: A Documentary Study of the Institutional and Economical History of the Customs from the 13th to the 16th century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Gregory, Stewart, William Rothwell & David Trotter
eds. 2005–present [1977–1992] Anglo-Norman Dictionary (=
Publications of the Modern Humanities Research Association, 17). 2nd ed. 21 vols. London: Maney Publishing.
Guy, John
2012 Thomas Becket: Warrior, Priest, Rebel. New York: Random House.
Harding, Vanessa
1995 Cross-Channel Trade and Cultural Contacts: London and the Low Countries in the Later 14th Century. In
Caroline Barron &
Nigel Saul, eds., 153–168.
Harding, Vanessa & Laura Wright
eds. 1995 London Bridge: Selected Accounts and Rentals, 1381–1538 (=
London Record Society, 31). London: Record Society Publications.
Herbert, William
1834 The History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies of London: Volume I. London: The Corporation of the City of London.
Hodgett, Gerald
1972 A Social and Economic History of Medieval Europe. London: Methuen.
Hsy, Jonathan
2013 Trading Tongues: Merchants, Multilingualism, and Medieval Literature. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
Hunt, Tony
2000 Code-Switching in Medical Texts. In
David Trotter, ed., 131–147.
Imray, Jean
1964 The Merchant Adventurers and their Records.
Journal of the Society of Archivists 2:10.457–467.
Ingham, Richard
2009 Mixing Languages on the Manor.
Medium Ævum 78:1.80–97.
Ingham, Richard
ed. 2010 The Anglo-Norman Language and its Contexts. York: York Medieval Press & Boydell Press.
Ingham, Richard
2011 Code-Switching in the Later Medieval English Lay Subsidy Rolls. In
Herbert Schendl &
Laura Wright, eds., 95–114.
Ingham, Richard
2013 Language-Mixing in Medieval Latin Documents: Vernacular Articles and Nouns.
Multilingualism in Medieval Britain, c. 1066–1520: Sources and Analysis ed. by
Judith Jefferson &
Ad Putter, 105–122. Turnhout: Brepols.
Jefferson, Lisa
2000 The Language and Vocabulary of the 14th- and Early 15th-Century Records of the Goldsmiths’ Company. In
David Trotter, ed. 175–212.
Jefferson, Lisa
ed. 2009 The Medieval Account Books of the Mercers of London: An Edition and Translation. 21 vols. Farnham & Burlington: Ashgate.
Jefferson, Lisa & William Rothwell
1997 Society and Lexis: A Study of the Anglo-French Vocabulary in the 15th-Century Accounts of the Merchant Taylors’ Company.
Zeitschrift für Französische Sprache und Literatur 107:3.273–301.
Kingdon, John
ed. 1886 Facsimile of First Volume of MS Archives of the Worshipful Company of Grocers of the City of London, A.D. 1345–1463. London: Richard Clay & Sons.
Kurath, Hans, Sherman Kuhn, John Reidy & Robert Lewis
eds. 1952–2001 Middle English Dictionary. 121 vols. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Latham, Ronald, David Howlett & Richard Ashdowne
eds. 1975–2013 Dictionary of Medieval Latin from British Sources. 171 vols. Oxford: British Academy.
Leith, Dick
1983 A Social History of English. London & New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Lyell, Laetitia
1935 The Problem of the Records of the Merchant Adventurers.
The Economic History Review 5:2.96–98.
Lyell, Laetitia & Frank Watney
eds. 1936 Acts of Court of the Mercers’ Company, 1453–1527. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Melrose, Robin
2018 Magic in Britain: A History of Medieval and Earlier Practices. Jefferson: McFarland.
Miller, Gary
2001 The Death of French in Medieval England.
Romance Phonology and Variation (=
Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, 217) ed. by
Caroline Wiltshire &
Joaquim Camps, 145–159. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Mooney, Linne & Estelle Stubbs
2013 Scribes and the City: London Guildhall Clerks and the Dissemination of Middle English Literature, 1375–1425. York: Boydell & Brewer.
Ormrod, Mark
2003 The Use of English: Language, Law, and Political Culture in 14th-Century England.
Speculum 78:3.750–787.
Pahta, Päivi, Janne Skaffari & Laura Wright
eds. 2018 Multilingual Practices in Language History: English and Beyond (=
Language Contact and Bilingualism, 15). Berlin & Boston: de Gruyter.
Parkes, Malcolm
1976 The Influence of the Concepts of Ordinatio and Compilatio on the Development of the Book.
Medieval Learning and Literature: Essays Presented to Richard Hunt ed. by
Jonathan Alexander &
Margaret Gibson, 115–141. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Payne, Matthew, Philippa Smith & Janine Stanford
2010 [1982] City of London Livery Companies and Related Organisations: A Guide to their Archives in Guildhall Library. 4th ed. London: Guildhall Library Publications.
Poplack, Shana
1985 Contrasting Patterns of Code-Switching in Two Communities.
Methods V: Papers from the 5th International Conference on Methods in Dialectology ed. by
Henry Warkentyne, 363–386. Victoria: University of Victoria Press.
Postan, Michael
1933 The Economic and Political Relations of England and the Hanse.
Studies in the English Trade in the 15th Century (=
Studies in Economic and Social History, 5) ed. by
Eileen Power &
Michael Postan, 91–153. London: Routledge.
Pounds, Norman
2013 [1974] An Economic History of Medieval Europe. 2nd ed. Abingdon & New York: Routledge.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech & Jan Svartvik
1985 A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman.
Rawcliffe, Carole
1992 Whittington, Richard (d. 1423), of London.
The History of Parliament: The House of Commons, 1386–1421 (Volume IV, Members P–Z) ed. by
John Roskell,
Linda Clark &
Carole Rawcliffe, 846–849. Stroud: Alan Sutton.
Rothwell, William
1980 Lexical Borrowing in a Medieval Context.
Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 631.118–143.
Rothwell, William
1983 Language and Government in Medieval England.
Zeitschrift für Französische Sprache und Literatur 93:3.258–270.
Rothwell, William
1992 The French Vocabulary in the Archive of the London Grocers’ Company.
Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Literatur 102:1.23–41.
Rothwell, William
1993a From Latin to Anglo-French and Middle English: The Role of the Multilingual Gloss.
The Modern Language Review 88:3.581–599.
Rothwell, William
1993b The faus Franceis d’Angleterre: Later Anglo-Norman.
Anglo-Norman Anniversary Essays (=
Occasional Publications, 2) ed. by
Ian Short, 309–326. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society.
Rothwell, William
1993c The Legacy of Anglo-French: Faux amis in French and English.
Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 109:1–2.16–46.
Rothwell, William
1998 Arrivals and Departures: The Adoption of French Terminology into Middle English.
English Studies 79:2.144–165.
Rothwell, William
1999 Sugar and Spice and All Things Nice: From Oriental Bazaar to English Cloister in Anglo-French.
The Modern Language Review 94:3.647–659.
Rothwell, William
2000 Aspects of Lexical and Morphosyntactic Mixing in the Languages of Medieval England. In
David Trotter, ed., 213–232.
Rothwell, William
2001 English and French in England after 1362.
English Studies 82:6.539–559.
Schendl, Herbert
1996 Text Types and Code-Switching in Medieval and Early Modern English.
VIEWZ: Vienna English Working Papers 5:1–2.50–62.
Schendl, Herbert
2000a Linguistic Aspects of Code-Switching in Medieval English Texts. In
David Trotter, ed., 77–91.
Schendl, Herbert
2000b Syntactic Constraints on Code-Switching in Medieval Texts.
Placing Middle English in Context (=
Topics in Linguistics, 35) ed. by
Irma Taavitsainen,
Terttu Nevalainen,
Päivi Pahta &
Matti Rissanen, 67–86. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Schendl, Herbert
2002 Mixed-Language Texts as Data and Evidence in English Historical Linguistics.
Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective (=
Topics in English Linguistics, 39) ed. by
Donka Minkova &
Robert Stockwell, 51–78. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Schendl, Herbert
2003 [2000] Code-Switching in Medieval English Poetry.
Language Contact in the History of English (=
Studies in English Medieval Language and Literature, 1) ed. by
Dieter Kastovsky &
Arthur Mettinger, 305–335. 2nd ed. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Schendl, Herbert
2012 Multilingualism, Code-Switching, and Language Contact in Historical Sociolinguistics.
The Handbook of Historical Sociolinguistics ed. by
Juan Hernández Campoy &
Camilo Conde Silvestre, 520–551. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
Schendl, Herbert & Laura Wright
eds. 2011a Code-Switching in Early English (=
Topics in English Linguistics, 76). Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Schendl, Herbert & Laura Wright
2011b Introduction. In
Herbert Schendl &
Laura Wright, eds., 1–14.
Schendl, Herbert & Laura Wright
2011c Code-Switching in Early English: Historical Background and Methodological and Theoretical Issues. In
Herbert Schendl &
Laura Wright, eds., 15–46.
Simpson, John & Edmund Weiner
eds. 2000–present [1884–1928] Oxford English Dictionary. 3rd ed. 201 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Skaffari, Janne & Aleksi Mäkilähde
2014 Code-Switching in Historical Materials: Research at the Limits of Contact Linguistics.
Questioning Language Contact: Limits of Contact, Contact at its Limits (=
Brill Studies in Language Contact and Dynamics of Language, 1) ed. by
Robert Nicolaï, 252–279. Leiden: Brill.
Sleigh-Johnson, Nigel
1989 The Merchant Taylors’ Company of London, 1580–1645: With Special Reference to Government and Politics. University of London, doctoral dissertation.
Sutton, Anne
1997 Mercery through Four Centuries, 1130s–c.1500.
Nottingham Medieval Studies 411.100–125.
Sutton, Anne
1998 The Silent Years of London Guild History before 1300: The Case of the Mercers.
Historical Research 71:175.121–141.
Sutton, Anne
2001 The Shop-Floor of the London Mercery Trade, c.1200–c.1500: The Marginalisation of the Artisan, the Itinerant Mercer, and the Shopholder.
Nottingham Medieval Studies 451.12–50.
Sutton, Anne
2002 The Merchant Adventurers of England: Their Origins and the Mercers’ Company of London.
Historical Research 75:187.25–46.
Sutton, Anne
2005 The Mercery of London: Trade, Goods, and People, 1130–1578. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Taavitsainen, Irma & Päivi Pahta
eds. 2004 Medical and Scientific Writing in Late Medieval English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Thomason, Sarah & Terrence Kaufman
1988 Language Contact, Creolisation, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Thrupp, Sylvia
1942 Medieval Guilds Reconsidered.
The Journal of Economic History 2:2.164–173.
Trotter, David
1998 Some Lexical Gleanings from Anglo-French Gascony.
Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 114:1.53–72.
Trotter, David
ed. 2000 Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Cambridge: Brewer.
Trotter, David
2003a L’anglo-normand: Variété insulaire, ou variété isolée ? Médiévales: Grammaires du vulgaire 451.43–54.
Trotter, David
2003b Not as Eccentric as it Looks: Anglo-French and French French.
Forum for Modern Language Studies 39:4.427–438.
Trotter, David
2003c
Oceano Vox: On Multilingualism and Language-Mixing in Medieval Britain. In
Kurt Braunmüller &
Gisella Ferraresi, eds., 15–33.
Trotter, David
2006 Language Contact, Multilingualism, and the Evidence problem.
The Beginnings of Standardisation: Language and Culture in 14th-Century England (=
Studies in English Medieval Language and Literature, 15) ed. by
Ursula Schaefer, 73–90. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Trotter, David
2010 Bridging the Gap: The (Socio)Linguistic Evidence of some Medieval English Bridge Accounts. In
Richard Ingham, ed., 52–63.
Trotter, David
2011 Death, Taxes, and Property: Some Code-Switching Evidence from Dover, Southampton, and York. In
Herbert Schendl &
Laura Wright, eds., 155–189.
Voigts, Linda
1996 What’s the Word?: Bilingualism in Late Medieval England.
Speculum 71:4.813–826.
Wagner, Miriam, Bettina Beinhoff & Ben Outhwaite
eds. 2017 Merchants of Innovation: The Languages of Traders (=
Studies in Language Change, 15). Berlin & Boston: de Gruyter.
Woolard, Kathryn
1999 Simultaneity and Bivalency as Strategies in Bilingualism.
Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 8:1.3–29.
Wright, Laura
1994a Early Modern London Business English.
Studies in Early Modern English (=
Topics in English Linguistics, 13) ed. by
Dieter Kastovsky, 449–465. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Wright, Laura
1994b On the Writing of the History of Standard English.
Papers from the 7th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics (=
Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, 113) ed. by
Francisco Moreno Fernández,
Miguel Fuster Márquez &
Juan José Calvo, 105–115. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Wright, Laura
1995 A Hypothesis on the Structure of Macaronic Business Writing.
Medieval Dialectology (=
Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs, 79) ed. by
Jacek Fisiak, 309–321. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Wright, Laura
1996 Sources of London English: Medieval Thames Vocabulary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Wright, Laura
1997 The Records of Hanseatic Merchants: Ignorant, Sleepy, or Degenerate? Multilingua 16:4.339–350.
Wright, Laura
1998 Mixed-Language Business Writing: Five Hundred Years of Code-Switching.
Language Change: Advances in Historical Sociolinguistics (=
Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs, 114) ed. by
Ernst Jahr, 99–118. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Wright, Laura
2000 Bills, Accounts, Inventories: Everyday Trilingual Activities in the Business World of Later Medieval England. In
David Trotter, ed., 149–156.
Wright, Laura
2002 Code-Intermediate Phenomena in Medieval Mixed-Language Business Texts.
Language Sciences 24:3–4.471–489.
Wright, Laura
2010 A Pilot Study on the Singular Definite Articles le and la in 15th-Century London Mixed-Language Business Writing. In
Richard Ingham, ed., 130–142.
Wright, Laura
2011 On Variation in Medieval Mixed-Language Business Writing. In
Herbert Schendl &
Laura Wright, eds., 191–218.
Wright, Laura
2013 On Historical Language Dictionaries and Language Boundaries.
Evur Happie & Glorious, ffor I Hafe at Will Grete Riches (=
Medieval English Mirror, 9) ed. by
Liliana Sikorska &
Marcin Krygier, 11–26. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Cited by
Cited by 2 other publications
Alcolado Carnicero, José Miguel
2023.
Item, pur escrivyng et enrollynge in Englyshe: From Latin and French to English in the medieval business records of the Grocers of London.
Studia Neophilologica 95:1
► pp. 19 ff.
Conde-Silvestre, J. Camilo
2021.
Multilingualism and Language Contact in the Cely Letters.
Anglia 139:2
► pp. 327 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 1 april 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.