This paper explores the protest claims of Pakistani women against the everyday oppression of traditional gender
roles and the complex backlash they provoke as an instance of violence against women in politics. Taking the annual Aurat
March (Women’s March) as a focal point, I analyze the provocative placards and slogans that have gone viral in both
traditional and digital media and investigate the misogynistic counter attacks launched by conservatives, men’s rights advocates,
and anti-feminists. Contesting narrow definitions of the political in mainstream research, I argue that Aurat
March protesters and activists are women in politics and that counter-discourses, designed to
delegitimize the protest and the women’s issues it represents, constitute a mode of discursive violence that should be included in
scholarly and activist discussions of violence against women in politics.
Abraham, Itty, Edward Newman, and Meredith Leigh Weiss (eds). 2010. Political Violence in South and Southeast Asia: Critical Perspectives. Tokyo and New York: United Nations University Press.
Alam, Zainab B.2020. “Do-it-Yourself Activism in Pakistan: The Fatal Celebrity of Qandeel Baloch.” Perspectives on Politics 18(1): 76–90.
Asher, Saira. 2020. “Aurat March: Pakistani Women Face Violent Threats Ahead of Rally.” BBC News, 7March.
Aurat March, Lahore. 2020. Aurat March Lahore: Manifesto for 2020. [URL]
Azeem, Tehreem. 2019. “Pakistan’s Women Marched for Their Rights. Then the Backlash Came.” The Diplomat, March20.
Banet-Weiser, Sarah, and Laura Portwood-Stacer. 2017. “The Traffic in Feminism: An Introduction to the Commentary and Criticism on Popular Feminism.” Feminist Media Studies 17(5): 884–888.
Bardall, Gabrielle S.2018. “Violence, Politics, and Gender.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. February26. Oxford University Press.
Biroli, Flávia. 2018. “Violence against Women and Reactions to Gender Equality in Politics.” Politics & Gender 14(4): 681–685.
Bonilla, Yarimar, and Jonathan Rosa. 2015. “# Ferguson: Digital Protest, Hashtag Ethnography, and the Racial Politics of Social Media in the United States.” American Ethnologist 42(1): 4–17.
Boone, Jon. 2015. “Sabeen Mahmud, Pakistani Rights Activist, Shot Dead.” The Guardian, April25.
Bose, Rakhi. 2019. “Pakistani Men Display Sexist Placards to Protest Women’s March, Trolled Intensely.” News18, March27.
Bueno de Mesquita, Ethan, C. Christine Fair, Jenna Jordan, Rasul Bakhsh Rais, and Jacob N. Shapiro. 2015. “Measuring Political Violence in Pakistan: Insights from the BFRS Dataset.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 32(5): 536–558.
Cheema, Ali, Sarah Khan, Shandana Khan Mohmand, and Asad Liaqat. 2019. “Invisible Citizens: Why More Women in Pakistan do not Vote.” IDS Working Paper 5241, Brighton: IDS.
City42. 2019. “Vulgar and Feminist Slogans at Aurat March!.” City42. March12. YouTube video, 24:24 [URL]
Dad, Nighat (@nighatdad). 2019. “This Person @ishraq_shaka Is Giving Me Rape Threats but Thanks to Twitter @Jack Who Has Not Been Taking Any Actions against Hundreds of Accounts Who Are Giving Rape and Death Threats to Women Who Attended @AuratMarch Cc @Schemaly @TwitterSupport Pic.twitter.com/EwCk7swPgV.” Twitter, March12, 11:24 a.m. [URL]
Daily Times. 2020. “Maulana Fazlur Rehman Asks JUI-F Workers to Stop Aurat March by Force.” Daily Times, February29.
Dawn Images. 2019. “Poet Kishwar Naheed Slammed the Aurat March, and Then Twitter Slammed Her.” Dawn News, March13.
Dawn Images. 2020. “Aurat March’s Beautiful Mural was Vandalised in Islamabad. Are Men Really that Afraid?” Dawn News, March5.
Djonov, Emilia, and Theo van Leeuwen. 2018. “The Power of Semiotic Software: A Critical Multimodal Perspective.” In The Routledge Handbook of Critical Discourse Studies, edited by John Flowerdew and John Richardson, 566–581. London: Routledge.
Droogan, Julian. 2018. “The Perennial Problem of Terrorism and Political Violence in Pakistan.” Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism 13(2): 202–215.
Dupuis-Déri, Francis. 2016. “State Antifeminism.” International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 5(2): 21–35.
Eijaz, Abida, and Rana Eiajz Ahmed. 2011. “Discourses of Feminism in the Perspective of Allama Iqbal and the West.” Canadian Social Science 7(5): 190–197.
Express Tribune. 2019. “The Aurat March 2020 Poster That Led to Rape Threats.” The Express Tribune, November30.
Fair, C. Christine, Neil Malhotra, and Jacob N. Shapiro. 2009. “The Roots of Militancy: Explaining Support for Political Violence in Pakistan.” Working Paper, Princeton University.
Flood, Michael, Molly Dragiewicz, and Bob Pease. 2018. “Resistance and Backlash to Gender Equality: An Evidence Review.” QUT Crime and Justice Research Centre, Australia.
Global Village Space. 2019. “Aurat March: The First Glimpse of Aurat March Posters Received Rape, Acid Attacks, Threats on Social Media.” Global Village Space, November30.
Hadid, Diaa. 2018. “Why the Abortion Rate in Pakistan Is One of The World’s Highest.” NPR, November28.
Hawkesworth, Mary. 1999. “Analyzing Backlash: Feminist Standpoint Theory as an Analytical Tool.” Women’s Studies International Forum 22(2): 135–155.
Hawkesworth, Mary E.2006. Globalization and Feminist Activism. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield.
Hayat, Arif, and Ali Akbar. 2019. “KP Assembly Unanimously Passes Resolution against Aurat March, Terming It ‘Shameful’.” Dawn News, March21.
Holmes, Janet. 2008. “Gendered Talk at Work: Constructing Gender Identity through Workplace Discourse.” Sociolionguistic Studies 3(1): 115–121.
Hussain, Aamir Liaquat. 2019. “Aurat March / Horrible Reality l Aamir Liaquat Explains The Reality Behind Aurat March.” In Aamir Liaquat Channel. YouTube.
Hussain, Shahid. 2020. “Lahore High Court Disposes of Petition to Ban Aurat March.” Samaa TV. March3.
Ismail, Rehana. 2019. “To Prevent Conspiracies Aimed at Destroying our Social and Cultural Values in the Form of Immoral Protests.” Edited by Provincial Assembly of Khyver Pakhtunkhwa. [URL]
Jad, Islah. 2007. “NGOs: Between Buzzwords and Social Movements.” Development in Practice 17(4–5): 622–629.
Jahangir, Ramsha. 2020. “Fostering Open Spaces in Pakistan: Combatting Threats to Women’s Activism Online.” Digital Rights Foundation. [URL]
Jane, Emma A.2017. Misogyny Online: A Short (and Brutish) History. London: Sage.
Javaid, Maham. 2018. “Women in Imran Khan’s ‘New Pakistan’.” The Diplomat, August3.
Javaid, Maham. 2020. “‘Many Accounts on Twitter Are Created for Propaganda.’” Soch Writing, January27.
Jewitt, Carey. 2013. “Multimodal Methods for Researching Digital Technologies.” In The SAGE Handbook of Digital Technology Research, edited by Sara Price, Carey Jewitt, and Barry Brown, 250–263. London: Routledge.
Khan, Ayesha, and Nida Kirmani. 2018. “Moving Beyond the Binary: Gender-based Activism in Pakistan.” Feminist Dissent 31: 151–191.
Khan, Shmyla. 2019a. “Violence against Women on the Rise in Pakistan.” Deutsche Welle, September23.
Khan, Shmyla. 2019b. “Online Participation of Female Politicians in Pakistan’s General Elections.” Edited by Nighat Dad: Digital Rights Foundation.
KhosraviNik, Majid. 2017. “Social Media Critical Discourse Studies (SM-CDS).” In The Routledge Handbook of Critical Discourse Studies, edited by John Flowerdew, and John Richardson, 582–596. London: Routledge.
KhosraviNik, Majid. 2018. “Social Media Techno-discursive Design, Affective Communication and Contemporary Politics.” Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences 11(4): 427–442.
Kress, Gunther R.2003. Literacy in the New Media Age. London: Routledge.
Kress, Gunther, and Theo van Leeuwen. 2006. Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design (2nd Edn.). Oxon: Routledge.
Krook, Mona Lena. 2020. “Violence against Women in Politics.” In How Gender Can Transform the Social Sciences, edited by Marian Sawer, Fiona Jenkins and Karen Downing, 57–64. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
Krook, Mona Lena, and Juliana Restrepo Sanín. 2019. “The Cost of Doing Politics? Analyzing Violence and Harassment against Female Politicians.” Perspectives on Politics 18(3): 740–755.
Machin, David. 2016. “The Need for a Social and Affordance-driven Multimodal Critical Discourse Studies.” Discourse & Society 27(3): 322–334.
Mansbridge, Jane, and Shauna L. Shames. 2008. “Toward a Theory of Backlash: Dynamic Resistance and the Central Role of Power.” Politics & Gender 4(4): 623–634.
Masood, Tooba. 2019. “Women Are Battling a Spike in Online Threats after the Aurat March, but Does Anybody Care?.” Dawn Images, March19.
Moghadam, Valentine M.2015. “Transnational Feminist Activism and Movement Building.” In The Oxford Handbook of Transnational Feminist Movements, edited by Rawwida Baksh and Wendy Harcourt, 53–81. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press.
Naz, Rukhshanda, and Hassan Nasir Mirbahar. 2018. “Making Gender Quotas Meaningful.” Heinrich Boll Stiftung Pakistan[URL]
Neo TV Network. 2019. “Harf e Raaz with Orya Maqbool Jan.” Neo TV Network Official. YouTube.
Neo TV Network. 2020. “11:45 / 14:22 Khalil Ul Rehman Qamar Aur Marvi Sarmad Main Garma Garmi.” Neo TV Network Official. YouTube video.
Newsweek Pakistan. 2020. “Aurat March 2020 Marred by Violence in Islamabad.” Newsweek Pakistan, March9.
Norris, Pippa. 2001. Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pundir, Pallavi. 2020. “Pakistani Men are Tearing Down Posters of the Annual Women’s March, again.” Vice News, March3.
Puwar, Nirmal. 2004. Space Invaders: Race, Gender and Bodies out of Place. London: Bloomsbury.
Raheel, Aleena. 2019. “Orya Maqbool Claims that it is Men’s Fundamental Right to Send Vulgar Pictures.” Daily Pakistan, March15.
Rashid, Sohail. 2019. “’Stop the Propaganda’: Court Throws out Petition against Aurat March.” Samaa TV, May2.
Rashid, Sohail. 2020. “Islamabad High Court Dismisses Petition to Stop Aurat March.” Samaa TV, March6.
Roth, Kenneth. 2019. “World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Pakistan.” Human Rights Watch, January17.
Samaa TV. 2020. “Maulana Tariq Jamil Ki Khususi Dua PM Imran Khan Live Telethon”. YouTube.
Sevea, Iqbal Singh. 2012. The Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and Nationalism in Late Colonial India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shaheed, Farida. 2019. “Maintaining Momentum in Changing Circumstances.” Journal of International Affairs 72(2): 159–172.
Srivastav, Moulshree. 2019. “Pak Men Retaliate with a ‘Mard March’ Holding Ridiculous Posters and Shameless Slogans.” Youth Ki Awaaz, March30.
UN General Assembly. 1993. “Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women.” [URL]
UN Women. 2014. “Violence against Women in Politics: A Study Conducted in India, Nepal and Pakistan.” Delhi: United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women. [URL]
Unger, Johann, Ruth Wodak, and Majid KhosraviNik. 2016. “Critical Discourse Studies and Social Media Data.” In Qualitative Research, edited by David Silverman, 277–293. London: Sage.
van Dijk, Teun A.1993. “Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis.” Discourse & Society 4(2): 249–283.
van Leeuwen, Theo, and Ruth Wodak. 1999. “Legitimizing Immigration Control: A Discourse-Historical Analysis.” Discourse Studies 1(1): 83–118.
Wadell, Kaveh. 2017. “The Exhausting Work of Tallying America’s Largest Protest.” The Atlantic, January23.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. 2011. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th Edition. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
White, Lucie E.1990. “Subordination, Rhetorical Survival Skills, and Sunday Shoes: Notes on the Hearing of Mrs. G.” Buff. L. Rev. 38:1, Art. 3.
Wodak, Ruth. 2002. “Fragmented Identities Redefining and Recontextualizing.” In Politics as Text and Talk: Analytic Approaches to Political Discourse, edited by Paul Chilton and Christina Schäffner, 143–169. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Wolkowitz, Carol. 1987. “Controlling Women’s Access to Political Power: A Case Study in Andhra Pradesh, India.” In Women, State and Ideology, edited by Haleh Afshar, 205–225. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
World Economic Forum. 2020. “The Global Gender Gap Report 2020”. [URL]
Youngs, Gillian. 2015. “Digital Transformations of Transnational Feminism in Theory and Practice.” In The Oxford Handbook of Transnational Feminist Movements, edited by Rawwida Baksh and Wendy Harcourt, 284–297. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press.
Zahra-Malik, Mehreen. 2019. “Pakistan Torn as Women’s Day March Sparks Wave of ‘Masculine Anxiety’.” The Guardian, March 15, 2019. [URL].
Zehra, Ailia. 2019. “If you Think Divorced Women Can’t Be Happy, you are Part of the Problem.” Naya Daur, November1.
Zhao, Sumin, Emilia Djonov, Anders Björkvall, and Morten Boeriis. (eds). 2017. Advancing Multimodal and Critical Discourse Studies: Interdisciplinary Research Inspired by Theo van Leeuwen’s Social Semiotics. London: Routledge.
Ammari, Tawfiq, Momina Nofal, Mustafa Naseem & Maryam Mustafa
2022. Moderation as Empowerment: Creating and Managing Women-Only Digital Safe Spaces. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 6:CSCW2 ► pp. 1 ff.
2021. Twitter and abortion. Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict 9:1 ► pp. 127 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 7 august 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.