Chinese-dominant bilingualism
Testing the bilingual competence of ethnic Nuosu
This research provides quantitative evidence of the decline in Nuosu competence among the young Nuosu generation
in Liangshan, Sichuan, China, through a direct comprehensive linguistic measurement of their Nuosu-Chinese bilingual competence.
Although the young generation can still speak Nuosu, a Tibeto-Burman language, as fluently as the elder Nuosu generations without
apparent difficulty, this research identifies the subtle change of competence before it becomes widely noticeable. A sample of 34
ethnic Nuosu of three generations was tested in Xichang, Liangshan, through measuring their core or implicit language knowledge
(i.e. morphology, syntax, lexicon, semantics, and pragmatics) in Nuosu and Chinese. The participants were from seven
Shynra-speaking counties and two Yynuo-speaking counties, mainly within Liangshan. The test format was listening and speaking, to
include illiterate speakers. It was found that all elder and middle-aged subjects still possessed monolingual baseline competence,
which was stable and maintained at a high level. However, only half of the young Nuosu subjects achieved monolingual baseline
competence in Nuosu. The other half, though still considered as native speakers of Nuosu, had lower and more varied competence;
however, almost all of them achieved monolingual baseline competence in Chinese. The Nuosu speech community in Liangshan is
shifting from Nuosu-dominant bilingualism to Chinese-dominant bilingualism. Moreover, the present study proposes a typology of
native speakers and a typology of bilinguals based on different levels of competence obtained from the current sample.
Article outline
-
1.Introduction
- 2.The Nuosu language and bilingualism in Liangshan
- 2.1About the Nuosu language
- 2.2Generational differences in language use
- 3.Method: A direct comprehensive linguistic test
- 3.1A measurement for understudied lesser-known languages
- 3.2Test content
- 3.3Selecting test features
- 3.4Solution to the dialectal differences
- 3.5Participants
- 3.6Literacy issue and change of the test format
- 3.7Question types and sample questions
- 3.7.1Attitudinal clitics with multiple-choice question
- 3.7.2Simplex-causative verb with T/F question
- 3.7.3Focus-presupposition construction with sentence-making question
- 3.8The test content of the Nuosu and Chinese test
- 3.9Test procedure
- 4.Results and discussion
- 4.1Declining and unstable Nuosu competence among the young ethnic Nuosu
- 4.2High competence in Chinese among the young ethnic Nuosu
- 4.3Vocabulary test
- 4.4Summary
- 5.The dynamic change of the competence
- 5.1Three cut scores of competence
- 5.1.1Estimating the measurement errors
- 5.1.2Monolingual baseline competence
- 5.1.3Cut scores of limited and fluent competence
- 5.2A typology of native speakers
- 5.3From Nuosu-dominant bilingualism to Chinese-dominant bilingualism
- 5.4Summary
- 6.Conclusion
- 6.1Summary of findings
- 6.2Limitations of the present study and recommendations for future research
- Acknowledgements
- Notes
- Abbreviations
-
References
References (63)
References
Aga, Rehamo & Stevan Harrell. 2018. Theory and practice of bilingual education in China: lessons from Liangshan Yi autonomous prefecture. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 241.1–16.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Altenberg, Evelyn P. 1991. Assessing first language vulnerability to attrition. In Herbert W. Seliger & Robert M. Vago (eds.), First language attrition: structural and theoretical perspectives, 189–207. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Austin, Peter K. & Julia Sallabank. 2011. Introduction. In Peter Austin & Julia Sallabank (eds.), The Cambridge handbook of endangered languages, 1–24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bachman, Lyle F. 1990. Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Baker, Colin, & Sylvia P. Jones. 1998. Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Benmamoun, Elabbas, Silvina Montrul, & Maria Polinsky. 2013. Heritage languages and their speakers: opportunities and challenges for linguistics. Theoretical Linguistics 39(3–4).129–181.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bloomfield, Leonard. 1933. Language. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bot, Kees de, Paul Gommans, & Carola Rossing. 1991. L1 loss in an L2 environment: Dutch immigrants in France. In Herbert W. Seliger & Robert M. Vago (eds.), First language attrition: Structural and theoretical perspective, 87–98. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bradley, David. 1997. Tibeto-Burman languages and classification. In David Bradley (ed.), Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas, papers in South East Asian linguistics, 1–71. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bradley, David. 2001. Language policy for the Yi. In Stevan Harrell (ed.), Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China, 195–214. Berkeley: University of California Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bradley, David. 2007. East and Southeast Asia. In Ronald E. Asher & Christopher J. Moseley (eds.), Atlas of the world’s languages (2nd ed.), 159–208. London: Routledge.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bradley, David. 2011a. A survey of language endangerment. In Peter Austin & J. Sallabank (eds.), The Cambridge handbook of endangered languages, 66–77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bradley, David. 2011b. Problems in Orthography Development for the Yi in China. In Joshua Fishman & Ofelia Garcia, Handbook of language and ethnic identity (vol. 21), 180–191. New York: Oxford University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bradley, David. 2012. The characteristics of the Burmic family of Tibeto-Burman. Language and Linguistics 13(1). 71–92.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Brown, James D. 2013. Cut scores on language tests. In Carol A. Chapelle (ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics, 1634–1639. Chicester, United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Canale, Michael & Merrill Swain. 1980. Theoretical bases of communicative competence to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics 1(1).1–47. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chelliah, Shobhana & Willem de Reuse. 2011. Handbook of descriptive linguistic fieldwork. London: Springer. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chen, Kang & Wu Da. 1998. Yiyu yufa [Grammar of Nuosu: Based on Shynra dialect]. Beijing: Central Minzu University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chen, Shilin, Bian Shiming, & Li Xiuqing. 1985. Yiyu jianzhi [A concise survey of Nuosu]. Beijing: Minzu Publishing House.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chomsky, Noam. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dai, Qingxia (ed.). 2011a. Yunnan dehongzhou jingpozu yuyan shiyong xianzhuang jiqi yanbian [Language use and change of Jingpho at Dehong, Yunnan]. Beijing: The Commercial Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dai, Qingxia (ed.). 2011b. Lancang lahuzu yuyan shiyong xianzhuang jiqi yanbian [Language use and change of Lahu at Lancang]. Beijing: Commercial Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ding, Hongdi & Lijuan Yu. 2013. The dilemma: A study of bilingual education policy in Yi minority schools in Liangshan. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 16(4).451–470. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ding, Hongdi. 2016. Testing the competence of first language(s): A cross-generational study of ethnic Nuosu in Liangshan, Sichuan. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong PhD thesis. [URL]. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
Ding, Hongdi. 2018b. Aspect marking in Niesu, a Tibeto-Burman language in Sichuan, China. Paper presented at The 28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, Wenzao Ursuline University of Languages, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, May 17–19, 2018.
Ding, Sizhi Picus. 2007. Challenges in language modernization in China: The case of Prinmi. In David, Maya, Nicholas Ostler and Caesar Dealwis (eds.), Working Together for Endangered Languages: Research Challenges and Social Impacts, 120–126. Bath, England: Foundation for Endangered Languages.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ding, Sizhi Picus. 2016. Southern Min (Hokkien) as a migrating language: A comparative study of language shift and maintenance across national borders. Singapore: Springer. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ding, Sizhi Picus. 2017. Language endangerment and loss of traditional knowledge: The case of Prinmi. In Picus Sizhi Ding & Jamin Pelkey (eds.), Sociohistorical linguistics in Southeast Asia, 53–73. Leiden: Brill. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Edmondson, Jerold A., John H. Esling & Ziwo Lama. 2017. Nuosu Yi. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 47(1).87–97. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ellis, Rod. 1994. The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Fishman, Joshua A. 1991. Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance to threatened languages. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gerner, Matthias. 2013. Grammar of Nuosu. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hymes, Dell H. 1972. On communicative competence. In John B. Pride & Janet Holmes (eds.), Sociolinguistics, 269–293. London: Penguin.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lado, Robert. 1961. Language testing. New York: McGraw-Hill.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lama, Ziwo. 1998. A phonetic and phonological overview of the Yi (Lolo) language. Arlington: University of Texas at Arlington MA thesis.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lama, Ziwo. 2012. Subgrouping of Nisoic (Yi) languages: A study from the perspectives of shared innovation and phylogenetic estimation. Arlington: University of Texas at Arlington PhD dissertation.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 1997. Chaos/complexity science and second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics 18(2). 41–165. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lee, Nala Huiying & John Van Way. 2016. Assessing levels of endangerment in the Catalogue of Endangered Languages (ELCat) using the Language Endangerment Index (LEI). Language in Society 45(2).271–292. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lewis, Melvyn & Gary Simons. 2010. Assessing endangerment: Expanding Fishman’s GIDS. Revue Roumaine de Linguistique 551.103–120.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lin, Yaohua. 1995. Liangshan yizu de jubian [The change of the Liangshan Yi]. Beijing: The Commercial Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Livingston, Samuel A. & Michael J. Zieky. 1982. Passing scores: A manual for setting standards of performance on educational and occupational tests. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lord, Frederic M., & Melvin R. Novick. 1968. Statistical theories of mental test scores. Reading, MA: Addison-Welsley Publishing Company.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ma, Linying, Dennis E. Walters, & Susan G. Walters. 2008. Yi ying han changyong cihui [Nuosu Yi-Chinese-English glossary]. Beijing: Minzu Publishing House.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Montrul, Silvina. 2016. The acquisition of heritage languages. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Munai, Reha (ed.). 2015. Ganluo minzu yuyan shiyong xianzhuang jiqi yanbian [The development and change of the use of minority languages in Ganluo]. Beijing: Commercial Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
O’Grady, William, Lee Miseon, & Choo Miho. 2001. The acquisition of relative clauses by heritage and non-heritage learners of Korean as a second language: A comparative study. Journal of Korean Language Education 12(2).283–294.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Polinsky, Maria. 2006. Incomplete acquisition: American Russian. Journal of Slavic Linguistics 141.191–262.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Purpura, James E. 2004. Assessing grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Read, John. 2000. Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Rothman, Jason & Jeanine Treffers-Daller. 2014. A prolegomenon to the construct of the native speaker: Heritage speaker bilinguals are natives too! Applied Linguistics 351.93–98. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Schmid, Monika S. 2011. Language attrition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Schmidt, Annette. 1991. Language attrition in Boumaa Fijian and Dyirbal. In Herbert W. Seliger & Robert M. Vago (eds.), First language attrition, 113–124. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Shirai, Yasuhiro & Mary L. Vercellotti. 2013. Language acquisition and language assessment. In Antony John Kunnan (ed.), The companion to language assessment, 1477–1491. Malden, UK: Wiley Blackwell. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Sorace, Antonella & Frank Keller. 2005. Gradience in linguistic data. Lingua, 1151. 1497–1524. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Swadesh, Morris. 1952. Lexico-statistical dating of prehistoric ethnic contacts: with special reference to North American Indians and Eskimos. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 961.452–463.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Teng, Xing. 2001. Wenhua bianqian he shuangyu jiaoyu [Cultural change and bilingual education]. Beijing: Educational Science Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Tsunoda, Tasaku. 2005. Language endangerment and language revitalization: An introduction. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Xu, Xiaoying. 2007. Yuyan Zhengce he Shequn Yuyan: Xinjiapo Fujian Shequn Shehui Yuyanxue Yanjiu [Language policy and community language: Aspects of the sociolinguistic survey of the Hokkien community in Singapore]. Beijing: China Book Bureau.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Cited by (1)
Cited by one other publication
Liu, Qian, Fatma Zehra Colak & Orhan Agirdag
2022.
The extent and predictors of linguistically responsive teaching in Southwest China.
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 25:8
► pp. 3022 ff.
![DOI logo](//benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 8 july 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.