Cover not available
Article published In:
Language Teaching for Young Learners
Vol. 5:2 (2023) ► pp.122–148

Effects of an early start in learning English as a foreign language on reading and listening comprehension in Year 9

ORCID logo | University of Magdeburg
| Institute for Educational Quality Improvement (IQB) at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
| Institute for Educational Quality Improvement (IQB) at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin | University of Potsdam
| Institute for Educational Quality Improvement (IQB) at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin | University of Potsdam

For years now, all over Europe a debate has been ongoing concerning the effectiveness of an early start in learning a foreign language. This paper presents findings from a representative large-scale assessment study from Germany and seeks to examine the relationship between receptive skills in English as a foreign language (EFL) of students in Year 9 and their EFL learning onset age. We examined the differences in achievement of early starters – i.e., students who started learning English either before Year 3 or in Year 3 – in comparison with late starters defined as students instructed in EFL from Year 4 or 5 using a sample of more than 30,000 students. The results from multilevel regression modelling point to long-term advantages in reading and listening comprehension for students with an early onset of English instruction in primary school compared to students who began later. The paper finishes by discussing the results and suggesting further research in this field.

Keywords: English as a foreign language, primary school, age of onset, proficiency, receptive language skills
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Previous studies on the onset of learning English as a foreign language and current practice in Germany
  • 3.The present study
  • 4.Method
    • 4.1Study design and procedure
    • 4.2Participants
    • 4.3Measures
      • Achievement tests
      • Reasoning
      • English instruction
      • Sociodemographic information
    • 4.4Analyses
  • 5.Results
    • 5.1Differences in English reading and listening achievement between early and late starters
    • 5.2Group differences taking individual and household characteristics into account
    • 5.3Group differences in the states
  • 6.Discussion
  • 7.Limitations and conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
Published online: 2 November 2023
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/ltyl.22017.por
References
Baumert, J.
(2011) Expertenrat “Herkunft und Bildungserfolg“. Empfehlungen für Bildungspolitische Weichenstellungen in der Perspektive auf das Jahr 2020 (BW 2020) [Expert Council “Origin and Educational Success“. Recommendations for setting the course for educational policy from the perspective of the year 2020 (BW 2020)]. Ministerium für Kultus, Jugend und Sport Baden-Wuerttemberg.Google Scholar
Baumert, J., Fleckenstein, J., Leucht, M., Köller, O., & Möller, J.
(2020) The Long-Term Proficiency of Early, Middle, and Late Starters Learning English as a Foreign Language at School: A Narrative Review and Empirical Study. Language Learning, 70 (4), 1091–1135. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Blondin, C., Candelier, M., Edelenbos, P. P., Johnstone, R. R., Kubanek-German, A., & Taeschner, T.
(1998) Foreign Languages in Primary and Pre-School Education: Context and Outcome. CILT.Google Scholar
Caroll, J. B.
(1963) A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64 (8), 723–733. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Council of Europe
(2018) Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume with New Descriptors. Council of Europe.Google Scholar
European Commission
(2017) EU languages. [URL]
Fleckenstein, J., Möller, J., & Baumert, J.
(2020) Ist jünger immer besser? Frühes Fremdsprachenlernen in der Grundschule [Is younger always better? Early foreign language learning in elementary school]. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 34 (3–4), 133–148. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ganzeboom, H. B. G.
(2010) A new international socioeconomic index [ISEI] of occupational status for the International Standard Classification of Occupation 2008 [ISCO-08] constructed with data from the ISSP 2002–2007; with an analysis of quality of educational measurement in ISSP. Presentation at the Annual Conference of International Social Survey Program, Lisbon.
Harsch, C., Pant, H. A., & Köller, O.
(Hrsg.) (2010) Calibrating standards-based assessment tasks for English as a first foreign language: Standard-setting procedures in Germany. Waxmann.Google Scholar
Helmke, A.
(2009) Unterrichtsqualität und Lehrerprofessionalität. Diagnose, Evaluation und Verbesserung des Unterrichts [Teaching quality and teacher professionalism. Diagnosis, evaluation and improvement of teaching]. Klett, Kallmeyer.Google Scholar
Hübner, N., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B.
(2021) Should I stay or should I go? Predictors and effects of studying abroad during high school. Learning and Instruction, 71 1, 101398. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jaekel, N., Schurig, M., & Ritter, M.
(2022b) Investigating cohort effects of early foreign language learning. The Language Learning Journal. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jaekel, N., Schurig, M., Florian, M., & Ritter, M.
(2017) From Early Starters to Late Finishers? A Longitudinal Study of Early Foreign Language Learning in School. Language Learning, 67 (3), 631–664. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jaekel, N., Schurig, M., van Ackern, I., & Ritter, M.
(2022a) The impact of early foreign language learning on language proficiency development from middle to high school. System, 1061, 102763. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Klieme, E., Helmke, A., Lehmann, R. H., Nold, G., Rolff, H.-G., Schröder, K., Thomé, G., & Willenberg, H.
(Eds.) (2008) Unterricht und Kompetenzerwerb in Deutsch und Englisch: Ergebnisse der DESI-Studie [Teaching and acquisition of skills in German and English: Results of the DESI study]. Beltz. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Köller, O., Knigge, M., & Tesch, B.
(2010) Sprachliche Kompetenzen im Ländervergleich [Language skills in a country comparison]. Waxmann.Google Scholar
Kraitzek, A., Förster, M., & Zlatkin-Troitschanskaia, O.
(2020) Influences on master’s degree students’ economic knowledge. In O. Zlatkin-Troitschanskaia, H. A. Pant, M. Toepper & C. Lautenbach (Eds), Student Learning in German Higher Education. Innovative Measurement Approaches and Research Results (pp. 401–429). Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kuhl, P., Haag, N., Federlein, F., Weirich, S., & Schipolowski, S.
(2016) Soziale Disparitäten [Social disparities]. In P. Stanat, K. Böhme, S. Schipolowski, & N. Haag (Eds.), IQB-Bildungstrend 2015. Sprachliche Kompetenzen am Ende der 9. Jahrgangsstufe im zweiten Ländervergleich (pp. 409–429). Waxmann.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C.
(2006) The effects of age on foreign language learning: The BAF Project. In C. Muñoz (Ed.), Second language acquisition: Vol. 19. Age and the rate of foreign language learning (pp. 1–40). Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nikolov, M., & Djigunović, J.
(2006) Recent research on age, second language acquisition, and early foreign language learning. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 26 1, 234–260. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Penfield, W., & Roberts, L.
(1959) Speech and brain-mechanisms. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Pfenninger, S. E., & Singleton, D.
(2017) Beyond age effects in instructional L2 learning: Revisiting the age factor. Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
(2018) Starting age overshadowed: The primacy of differential environmental and family support effects on second language attainment in an instructional context. Language Learning, 69 (1), 207–234. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pfenninger, S. E., & Singleton, D. M.
(2016) The Age Factor in the Foreign Language Class: What Do Learners Think?. Theory and Practice of Second Language Acquisition, 2 (1), 119–147.Google Scholar
Piske, T.
(2017) The earlier, the better? Some critical remarks on current EFL teaching to young learners and their implications for foreign language teacher education. In E. Wilden & R. Porsch (Eds.), The professional development of primary EFL teachers: National and international research (pp. 45–57). Waxmann.Google Scholar
Porsch, R., & Wilden, E.
(2022) Teaching English Out-of-Field in Primary School: Differences in Professional Characteristics and Effects on Self-Assessed Instructional Quality. In L. Hobbs & R. Porsch (Eds.), Out-of-field Teaching Across Teaching Disciplines and Contexts (pp. 117–134). Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rupp, A. A., Vock, M., Harsch, C., & Köller, O.
(2008) Developing standards-based assessment tasks for English as a first foreign language. Waxmann.Google Scholar
Sachse, K. A., Haag, N., & Weirich, S.
(2016) Testdesign und Auswertung des IQB-Bildungstrends 2015: Technische Grundlagen [Test design and analysis of the IQB Trends in Student Achievement 2015: Technical Foundations]. In P. Stanat, K. Böhme, S. Schipolowski, & N. Haag (Eds.), IQB-Bildungstrend 2015. Sprachliche Kompetenzen am Ende der 9. Jahrgangsstufe im zweiten Ländervergleich (pp. 509–525). Waxmann.Google Scholar
Schipolowski, S., & Sachse, K. A.
(2016) Mittelwerte und Streuungen der im Fach Englisch erreichten Kompetenzen [Mean values and variation of the competences achieved in English]. In P. Stanat, K. Böhme, S. Schipolowski & N. Haag (Eds.), IQB-Bildungstrend 2015. Sprachliche Kompetenzen am Ende der 9. Jahrgangsstufe im zweiten Ländervergleich (pp. 359–375). Waxmann.Google Scholar
Schipolowski, S., Stanat, P., Böhme, K., Haag, N., Sachse, K. A., Hoffmann, L., Sebald, S. & Federlein, F.
(2016) Der Blick in die Länder [Results for the states]. In P. Stanat, K. Böhme, S. Schipolowski, & N. Haag (Eds.), IQB-Bildungstrend 2015. Sprachliche Kompetenzen am Ende der 9. Jahrgangsstufe im zweiten Ländervergleich [IQB Trends in student achievement 2015: The second state comparison on language proficiency at the end of grade 9] (pp. 171–329). Münster: Waxmann.Google Scholar
Schroeders, U., Wilhelm, O., & Bucholtz, N.
(2010) Reading, listening, and viewing comprehension in English as a foreign language: One or more constructs? Intelligence, 38 (6), 562–573. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Stanat, P., Böhme, K., Schipolowski, S., & Haag, N.
(Eds.) (2016) IQB-Bildungstrend 2015. Sprachliche Kompetenzen am Ende der 9. Jahrgangsstufe im zweiten Ländervergleich [IQB Trends in Student Achievement 2015. Language skills at the end of grade 9 in the second country comparison]. Waxmann.Google Scholar
(2017) IQB Trends in Student Achievement 2015. English Summary. [URL]
Tribushinina, E., Dubinkina-Elgart, E., & Mak, O.
(2022) Effects of early foreign language instruction and L1 transfer on vocabulary skills of EFL learners with DLD. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics 37(8), 683–700. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
von Ow, A., Husfeldt, V., & Bader-Lehmann, U.
(2012) Einflussfaktoren für den Lernerfolg von Englisch an der Primarstufe: Eine Untersuchung in fünf Schweizer Kantonen und dem Fürstentum Liechtenstein [Factors influencing success in the learning of English at primary level: A study in five Swiss cantons and the Principality of Liechtenstein]. Babylonia 2012(1), 52–57.Google Scholar
Wilden, E., & Porsch, R.
(2020) A critical analysis of the German public debate about an early start in primary foreign language education. Language Teaching for Young Learners, 2 (2), 192–212. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wilden, E., Porsch, R., & Ritter, M.
(2013) Je früher desto besser? – Frühbeginnender Englischunterricht ab Klasse 1 oder 3 und seine Auswirkungen auf das Hör- und Leseverstehen [The earlier the better? – Early English learning onset in grade 1 or 3 and its impact on listening and reading comprehension skills]. Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung, 24 (2), 171–201.Google Scholar
Wilden, E., Porsch, R., & Schurig, M.
(2020) An early start in primary EFL education and the role of teacher qualification and teaching quality. Language Teaching for Young Learners, 2 (1), 28–51. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wilhelm, O., Schroeders, U., & Schipolowski, S.
(2014) Berliner Test zur Erfassung fluider und kristalliner Intelligenz für die 8. bis 10. Jahrgangsstufe (BEFKI 8–10) [Berlin test for assessing fluid and crystalline intelligence for grades 8 to 10 (BEFKI 8–10)]. Hogrefe.Google Scholar