Word norms and measures of linguistic reclamation for LGBTQ+ slurs
While databases of taboo language word norms exist, none focus specifically on slurs as a category of taboo
language. Furthermore, no existing databases include measures of linguistic reclamation, a phenomenon which may specifically
affect the processing of slurs. I produced a database in which 155 native or near-native speakers of British English rated 41
LGBTQ+ slurs for a number of word properties and measures of linguistic reclamation. I then ran correlation and demographic group
comparison analyses on the resulting database. I found a clear correlation pattern between properties and reclamation behaviours.
I also found that there were age-related differences in age of acquisition and familiarity ratings; that gender identity and
sexual identity differences were affected by being the target of slurs; and that sexual identity particularly affected differences
in reclamation ratings.
Article outline
- 1.Introduction
- 2.Research background
- 3.Methodology
- 3.1Respondents
- 3.2Design
- 3.3Procedure
- 3.4Data analysis
- 3.4.1Producing the database
- 3.4.2Correlation analyses
- 3.4.3Demographic group analyses
- 4.Results
- 4.1Correlations between word properties and reclamation behaviours
- 4.2Results of demographic group comparisons
- 4.2.1Age group (16–29 vs. 30+) comparisons
- 4.2.2Gender identity (women vs. men) comparisons
- 4.2.3Sexual identity (non-heterosexual vs. heterosexual) comparisons
- 5.Discussion
- 5.1Patterns of correlation between word properties and reclamation behaviours
- 5.2Age group differences: Age of acquisition and familiarity ratings
- 5.3Gender identity differences and the gendering of slurs
- 5.4Sexual identity differences and reclamation
- 5.5Differences in ratings for the transphobic slur tranny
- 6.Conclusion
-
References
References (40)
References
Allan, Keith & Kate Burridge. 2006. Forbidden
words: Taboo and the censoring of
language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Allan, Keith. 2019. Taboo Words and Language: An Overview. In Keith Allan (ed.), The Oxford Book of Taboo Words and Language. 1–27. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Anderson, Adam K. & Elizabeth A. Phelps. 2002. Is
the human amygdala critical for the subjective experience of emotion? Evidence of intact dispositional affect in patients with
amygdala lesions. Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience 14(5). 709–720. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Baker, Paul. 2008. Sexed
texts: Language, gender and
sexuality. London: Equinox.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bayer, Mareike, Werner Sommer & Annekathrin Schacht. 2012. P1
and beyond: Functional separation of multiple emotion effects in word
recognition. Psychophysiology 491. 959–969. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bianchi, Claudia. 2014. Slurs
and appropriation: An echoic account. Journal of
Pragmatics 661. 35–44. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bradley, Margaret M. & Peter J. Lang. 1999. Affective
Norms for English Words (ANEW): Instruction Manual and Affective Ratings (Technical Report
C-1). Gainesville, FA: University of Florida.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Brontsema, Robin. 2004. A
queer revolution: Reconceptualizing the debate over linguistic reclamation. Colorado Research
in Linguistics 171. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Brown, Penelope. 1980. How
and why are women more polite: Some evidence from a Mayan
community. In Sally McConnell-Ginet, Ruth Borker & Nelly Furman (eds.), Women
and language in literature and
society, 111–136. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger Publishers.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Brown, Roger & James Kulik. 1977. Flashbulb
memories. Cognition 51. 73–99. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Brysbaert, Marc & Michael J. Cortese. 2011. Do
the effects of subjective frequency and age of acquisition survive better word frequency
norms? Quarterly Journal of Experimental
Psychology 641. 545–559. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Callahan, Matthew P. & Kyle T. Zukowski. 2019. Reactions
to transgender women and men in public restrooms: Correlates and gender differences. Journal of
Homosexuality 66(1). 117–138. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Cameron, Deborah. 2006. On
language and sexual
politics. London: Routledge.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chen, Melinda Y-C. 1998. ‘“I am an
Animal!”: Lexical Reappropriation, Performativity, and Queer’. Engendering Communication:
Proceedings from the Fifth Berkeley Women and Language
Conference, 128–140.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Coates, Jennifer. 1988. Gossip
revisited: Language in all female groups. In Jennifer Coates & Deborah Cameron (eds.), Language
& Gender: A Reader (2nd
ed.) 263–274. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Coleman-Fountain, Edmund. 2014. Lesbian
and gay youth and the question of
labels. Sexualities 17(7). 802–817. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Crissman, Halley P., Christina Czuhajewski, Michelle H. Moniz, Missy Plegue & Tammy Chang. 2019. Youth
perspectives regarding the regulating of bathroom use by transgender individuals. Journal of
Homosexuality 67(14). ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Croom, Adam M. 2011. Slurs. Language
Sciences 33(3). 343–358. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Elischberger, Holger B., Jessica J. Glazier, Eric D. Hill & Lynn Verduzco-Baker. 2016. “Boys
don’t cry” – or do they? Adult attitudes toward and beliefs about transgender youth. Sex Roles:
A Journal of
Research 75(5–6). 197–214. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Field, Andy. 2013. Discovering
statistics using IBM SPSS Statistics, 4th
edn. London: SAGE.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Fishman, Pamela M. 1980. Conversational
insecurity. In Howard Giles, W. Peter Robinson & Philip M. Smith (eds.), Language:
Social Psychological
Perspectives, 127–132. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gaucher, Danielle, Brianna Hunt & Lisa Sinclair. 2015. Can
pejorative terms ever lead to positive social consequences? The case of SlutWalk. Language
Sciences 521. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gramsci, Antonio. 1971. Selections
from Prison Notebooks. Trans. Quintin Hoare & Geoffrey Nowell-Smith. London: Lawrence and Wishart.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gramsci, Antonio. 1985. Selections
from Cultural Writings. Eds. David Forgacs, & Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, trans. William Boelhower. London: Lawrence and Wishart.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hart, Anna. 2001. Mann-Whitney
test is not just a test of medians: Differences in spread can be
important. BMJ 3231. 391–393. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Herbert, Cassie. 2015. Precarious
projects: The performative structure of reclamation. Language
Sciences 521. 131–138. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Holmes, Janet. 1995. Women,
men and politeness. New York: Longman.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Janschewitz, Kristin. 2008. Taboo,
emotionally valenced, and emotionally neutral word norms. Behavior Research
Methods 40(4), 1065–1074. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jay, Timothy, Catherine Caldwell-Harris & Krista King. 2008. Recalling
taboo and nontaboo words. American Journal of
Psychology 1211. 83–103. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Juhasz, Barbara J., Melvin J. Yap, Joanna Dicke, Sarah C. Taylor & Margaret M. Gullick. 2011. Tangible
words are recognized faster: The grounding of meaning in sensory and perceptual systems. The
Quarterly Journal of Experimental
Psychology 64(9). 1683–1691. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kensinger, Elizabeth A. & Suzanne Corkin. 2003. Memory
enhancement for emotional words: Are emotional words more vividly remembered than neutral
words? Memory &
Cognition 31(8). 1169–1180. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
LaBar, Kevin. S., & Elizabeth A. Phelps. 1998. Arousal-mediated
memory consolidation: Role of the medial temporal lobe in humans. Psychological
Science 9(6). 490–493. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lehmann, Erich L. 2006. Nonparametrics: Statistical methods
based on ranks. New York: Springer.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Madan, Chris R., Andrea T. Shafer, Michelle Chan & Anthony Singhal. 2017. Shock
and awe: Distinct effects of taboo words on lexical decision and free recall. Quarterly Journal
of Experimental
Psychology 70(4). 793–810. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Mann, Henry. B. & Donald R. Whitney. 1947. On
a test of whether one of two random variables is stochastically larger than the other. Annals
of Mathematical
Sciences 181. 50–60. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Parent, Mike C. & Kevin Silva. 2018. Critical
consciousness moderates the relationship between transphobia and “bathroom bill”
voting. Journal of Counseling
Psychology 65(4). 403–412. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Russell, Stephen. T., Thomas J. Clarke, & Justin Clary. 2009. Are
Teens “Post Gay”? Contemporary Adolescents’ Sexual Identity Labels. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence 38(7). 884–890. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Spearman, Charles. 1904. The
proof and measurement of association between two things. The American Journal of
Psychology 15(1). 72–101. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Stevens, Hugh. 2011. Normality
and queerness in gay fiction. In Hugh Stevens (ed.), The
Cambridge companion to gay and lesbian
writing, 81–96. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
White, Edmund. 1980. The
Political Vocabulary of Homosexuality. In Lucy Burke, Tony Crowley, & Alan Girvin (eds.), 2000, The
Routledge Language and Cultural Theory
Reader, 189–196. London: Routledge.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Cited by (3)
Cited by three other publications
Heritage, Frazer
2023.
Language, gender, and (hetero)normativity. In
Incels and Ideologies [
Palgrave Studies in Language, Gender and Sexuality, ],
► pp. 117 ff.
![DOI logo](//benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
Sturaro, Samuel, Caterina Suitner & Fabio Fasoli
2023.
When is Self-Labeling Seen as Reclaiming? The Role of User and Observer's Sexual Orientation in Processing Homophobic and Category Labels’ use.
Journal of Language and Social Psychology 42:4
► pp. 464 ff.
![DOI logo](//benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
Worthen, Meredith G.F.
2023.
Queer identities in the 21st century: Reclamation and stigma.
Current Opinion in Psychology 49
► pp. 101512 ff.
![DOI logo](//benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 5 july 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.