Chapter published in:
TBLT as a Researched Pedagogy
Edited by Virginia Samuda, Kris Van den Branden and Martin Bygate
[Task-Based Language Teaching 12] 2018
► pp. 97–130

Chapter 4
The challenges of integrating focus on form within tasks

Findings from a classroom research project in secondary EFL classrooms

| Heidelberg University of Education
| Freiburg University of Education
This chapter draws on findings from a collaborative national research project in Germany on language learning tasks. Following unsatisfactory Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) results, the National Institute for Developing Quality in Education (IQB) commissioned a national classroom-based research program to explore the potential of language learning tasks. The research was carried out in collaboration with practising EFL secondary school teachers and their students. Based on the concept of Exploratory Practice, we collaborated with twenty teachers for three years to develop competences in designing, implementing, and reflecting on tasks and researching the process. Teachers learned how to document, reflect on, and share their experiences in video-recorded case studies, which included the perspectives of their learners, participating colleagues, and researchers. Data analysis showed that the question on whether, when, and how to integrate a focus on form (FonF) in task-supported language learning (TSLL) is a central issue. In the chapter we will show how the approach of Exploratory Practice allowed teachers to develop competences in this area and the insights we gained on ways of integrating FonF within tasks.
Article outline
  • Introduction
  • Where are we now? Different perspectives on tasks
  • Research context
  • Literature review 1: SLL and classroom-based research on FonF
    • Types of FonF
  • Literature review 2: Research on the processes of second language teacher education and professional development
  • The research question guiding our inquiry
  • Methodology
    • Exploratory practice
    • Case study approach
  • Participants
  • Design
  • Data collection
  • Data analysis
  • Results
  • Category I: How are learners involved from the very beginning of the task?
  • Category II: What function does language have in the classroom?
  • Category III: What is the role of the grammatical form (grammar, lexis) in your lessons?
  • Discussion
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
Published online: 01 November 2018
https://doi.org/10.1075/tblt.12.05har
References
Allwright, D., & Bailey, K.
(1991) Focus on the language classroom. An introduction to classroom research for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Allwright, D., & Hanks, J.
(2009) The developing language learner. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Altrichter, H., & Posch, P.
(2007) Lehrerinnen und Lehrer erforschen ihren Unterricht. Unterrichtsentwicklung und Unterrichtsevaluation durch Aktionsforschung. Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt.Google Scholar
Appel, J.
(1995) Diary of a language teacher. Oxford: Heinemann.Google Scholar
(2000) Erfahrungswissen und Fremdsprachendidaktik. Munich: Langenscheidt-Longman.Google Scholar
Arthur, N.
(2001) Critical incident methodology in research on cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25(1), 41–53. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, K. M., & Nunan, D.
(Eds.) (1996) Voices from the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Basturkmen, H., Loewen, S., & Ellis, R.
(2004) Teachers’ stated beliefs about incidental focus on form and their classroom practices. Applied Linguistics, 25, 243–272. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Borg, S., & Burns, A.
(2008) Integrating grammar in adult TESOL classrooms. Applied Linguistics, 29, 456–482. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Breen, M.
(1985) The social context for language learning – A neglected situation? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 7, 135–158. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bruton, A.
(2005) Task-based language teaching: For the state secondary FL classroom? Language Leaning Journal, 31, 55–56. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Burns, A.
(1999) Collaborative action research for English language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
(2009) Action research in second language teacher education. In A. Burns & J. C. Richards (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to second language teacher education (pp. 289–297). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cameron, L.
(2001) Teaching languages to young learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Candlin, C. N.
(2003) Communicative language teaching revisited. In M. K. Legutke & M. Schocker-v. Ditfurth (Eds.), Kommunikativer Fremdsprachenunterricht: Rückblick nach vorn (pp. 41–58). Tübingen: Narr.Google Scholar
Carless, D.
(2007) The suitability of task-based approaches for secondary schools: Perspectives from Hong Kong. System, 35, 565–608. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Carr, W., & Kemmis, S.
(1986) Becoming critical: Knowing through action research. London: The Falmer Press.Google Scholar
Council of Europe
(Ed.) (2001) Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Denzin, N.
(1989) The research act (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
DESI-Konsortium
(Eds.) (2008) Unterricht und Kompetenzerwerb in Deutsch und Englisch: Ergebnisse der DESI-Studie. Weinheim: Beltz.Google Scholar
Devlieger, M., Goossens, G., Labath, T., & Denolf, B.
(2003)  Procesevaluatie voorrangsbeleid Brussel eindverslag (2001/2003). Leuven & Gent: Universiteit Gent, Steunpunt ICO & KU Leuven, Steunpunt NT2.Google Scholar
Devlieger, M., & Goossens, G.
(2004) Producteindmeting taalvaardigheid. Evaluatie voorrangsbeleid Brussel. Leuven: Steunpunt Nederlands als Tweede Taal.Google Scholar
Devlieger, M., & Goosens, G.
(2007) An assessment tool for the evaluation of teacher powerful task-based language learning environments. In K. Van den Branden, K. Van Gorp, & M. Verhelst (Eds.), Tasks in action: Task-based language education from a classroom-based perspective (pp. 92–130). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z.
(2007) Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Doughty, C., & Williams, J.
(1998) Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Duran, G.
(1994) Wegen en omwegen naar een grotere taalvaardigheid Nederlands. Een praktijkbeschrijving uit het secundair onderwijs in Vlaanderen. In S. Kroon & T. Vallen (Eds.), Nederlands als tweede taal in het onderwijs. Praktijkbeschrijvingen uit Naderland en Vlaanderen (pp. 161–197). 'S Gravenhage: Nederlandse Taalunie.Google Scholar
Eckerth, J.
(2008a) Learners’ perceptions of task-based interactions. Presentation at 42nd Annual TESOL Convention New York, 2–5 April.
(2008b) Task-based language learning and teaching – old wine in new bottles? In J. Eckerth & S. Siekmann (Eds.), Task-based language learning and teaching: Theoretical, methodological, and pedagogical perspectives (pp. 13–46). Bern: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Eckerth, J., & Siekmann, S.
(Eds.) (2008) Task-based language learning and teaching: Theoretical, methodological, and pedagogical perspectives. Bern: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Edge, J., & Richards, K.
(Eds.) (1993) Teachers develop teachers’ research. Papers on classroom research and teacher development. Oxford: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Edge, J.
(Ed.) (2000) Action research. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications.Google Scholar
Ellis, R.
(2003) Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ellis, R., Basturkmen, H., & Loewen, S.
(2002) Doing focus-on-form. System, 30 , 419–432. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, D.
(1996) Redefining the relationship between research and what teachers know. In K. M. Bailey & D. Nunan (Eds.), Voices from the language classroom (pp. 88–116). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Freeman, D, & Johnson, K. E.
(1998) Reconceptualizing the knowledge-base of language teacher education. TESOL Quarterly, 32(3), 397–417. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Garcia Mayo, M.
(2007) Investigating tasks in formal language learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Guilloteaux, M. J., & Dörnyei, Z.
(2008) Motivating language learners: A classroom-oriented investigation of the effects of motivational strategies on student motivation. TESOL Quarterly, 42 (1), 55–77. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hattie, J.
(2012) Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. New York, NY: Routledge.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, K. E.
(1994) The emerging beliefs and instructional practices of pre-service English as a second language teachers. Teaching & Teacher Education, 10(4), 439–452. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(1999) Understanding language teaching. Reasoning in action. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.Google Scholar
(2009) Second language teacher education. A sociocultural perspective. New York, NY: Routledge.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kelle, U., & Kluge, S.
(2010) Vom Einzelfall zum Typus. Fallvergleich und Fallkontrastierung in der qualitativen Sozialforschung. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, M. M.
(1997) The connection between research and practice. Educational Researcher, 26(7), 4–12. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kieweg, W.
(1996) Alternative Konzepte zur Vermittlung der Grammatik. Der Fremdsprachliche Unterricht Englisch, 4, 4–12.Google Scholar
Kolb, A.
(2011) Gemeinsame Sache machen – Lernaufgaben für die Primar- und die Sekundarstufe. In D. Elsner & A. Wildemann (Eds.), Sprachen lernen – Sprachen lehren. Language learning – language teaching. Perspektiven für die Lehrerbildung in Europa. Prospects for teacher education across Europe (pp. 169–181). Bern: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Kumaravadivelu, B.
(1991) Language-learning tasks: Teacher intention and learner interpretation. ELTJ, 45(2), 98–107. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2006) Learner perception of learning tasks. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 152, 127–149. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Larsen-Freeman, D.
(2001) Grammar. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.), Teaching English to speakers of other languages (pp. 34–41). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Legutke, M.
(1995) Lehrerfortbildung: Einführung. In M. K. Legutke (Ed.), Handbuch für Spracharbeit, Teil 6: Fortbildung, Band 1 (pp. 1–22). Munich: Goethe-Institut.Google Scholar
Legutke, M. & Schocker-v. Ditfurth
, M. (2009) School-based experience. In A. Burns & J. C. Richards (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to second language education (pp. 209–217). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Linsen, B.
(1994) Met vallen en opstaan. De introductie van taakgericht taalonderwijs. Een praktijkbeschrijving uit het basisonderwijs in Vlaanderen. In S. Kroon & T. Vallen (Eds.), Nederlands als tweede taal in het onderwijs. Praktijkbeschrijvingen uit Naderland en Vlaanderen (pp. 131–159). ‘S-Gravenhage: Nederlandse Taalunie.Google Scholar
Lison, G., Timmermans, S., & Vandenbroucke, M.
(2002) Juf, ik stop niet meer als ik lees! Taakgericht remedieren lezen. In M. Colpin, G. Ramaut, S. Timmermans, K. Van den Branden, M. Vandenbroucke, & K. Van Gorp (Eds.), Leesrijk school- en klasklimaat. Een schat aan le(e)sideeen voor het basisonderwijs (pp. 93–110). Antwerpen: Garant.Google Scholar
Lortie, D. C.
(1975) School teacher. A sociological study. Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press.Google Scholar
Medgyes, P.
(1994) The non-native teacher. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Mitchell, R
2000 Applied linguistics and evidence-based classroom practice: The case of foreign language grammar pedagogy. Applied Linguistics, 21(3), 281–303. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Müller-Hartmann, A., Schocker, M., & Pant, H. A.
(Eds.) (2013) Kompetenzentwicklung in der Sek I. Lernaufgaben Englisch aus der Praxis. Mit zahlreichen Unterrichtsvideos. Braunschweig: Diesterweg & IQB. (incl. 3 DVDs)Google Scholar
Müller-Hartmann, A. & Schocker-v. Ditfurth, M.
(2011) Teaching English. Task-Supported Language Learning. Paderborn: Schöningh.Google Scholar
Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L.
(2000) Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50, 417–528. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Nunan, D., & Bailey, K. M.
(2009) Exploring second language classroom research. A comprehensive guide. Boston, MA: Heinle.Google Scholar
Rustemeyer, R.
(1992) Praktisch-methodische Schritte der Inhaltsanalyse. Eine Einführung am Beispiel der Analyse von Interviewtexten. Münster: Aschendorff.Google Scholar
Samuda, V.
(2001) Guiding relationships between form and meaning during task performance: The role of the teacher. In M. Bygate, P. Skehan, & M. Swain (Eds.), Researching pedagogic tasks second language learning, teaching and testing (pp. 119–140). Harlow: LongmanGoogle Scholar
Schart, M.
(2008) What matters in TBLT – Task, teacher or team? An action research perspective from a beginning German language classroom. In J. Eckert & S. Siekmann (Eds.), Task-based language learning and teaching: Theoretical, methodological, and pedagogical perspectives (pp. 47–66). Bern: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Schart, M., & Schocker, M.
(2013) ‘Die Menschen stärken, die Sachen klären‘: Die Aktionsforschung als praktikabler Weg zur gemeinsamen Entwicklung von Unterricht. In M. Schart, M. Hoshii, & M. Raindl (Eds.), Lernprozesse verstehen – empirische Forschungen zum Deutschunterricht an japanischen Universitäten (pp. 40–59). Munich: Iudicium.Google Scholar
Schocker-v. Ditfurth, M
(2001) Forschendes Lernen in der fremdsprachlichen Lehrerbildung. Tübingen: Narr.Google Scholar
Schocker-v. Ditfurth, M.
(2002) Unterricht verstehen. Erfahrungswissen reflektieren und den eigenen Unterricht weiterentwickeln. Medienpaket zur Förderung reflektierter Unterrichtspraxis. Munich: Goethe Institut Inter Nationes.Google Scholar
Schocker, M.
(2011) Grammatik und Fremdsprachenkompetenzen. Praxis Fremdsprachenunterricht, 1, 8–11Google Scholar
Schön, D. A.
(1983) The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York, NY: Basic Book.Google Scholar
Skehan, P.
(1996) Second language acquisition research and task-based instruction. In J. Willis & D. Willis (Eds.), Challenge and change in language teaching (pp. 17–30). Oxford: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Slimani-Rolls, A.
(2005) Rethinking task-based language learning: What we can learn from the learners. Language Teaching Research, 9(2), 195–218. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Swan, M.
(2005) Legislation by hypothesis: The case of task-based instruction. Applied Linguistics, 26(3), 376–401. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Van Avermaet, P., Colpin, M., Van Gorp, K., Bogaert, N., & Van den Branden, K.
(2006) The role of the teacher in task-based language teaching. In K. Van den Branden (Ed.), Task-based language education. From theory to practice (pp. 175–196). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Van den Branden, K.
(1997) Effects of negotiation on language learners’ output. Language Learning, 47, 589–636. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(Ed.) (2006) Task-based language education. From theory to practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Van den Branden, K., & Verhelst, M.
(2006) Task-based language teaching: Forms and functions. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 152, 1–6. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Van den Branden, K., Van Gorp, K., & Verhelst, M.
(Eds.) (2007) Tasks in action. Task-based language education from a classroom-based perspective. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars.Google Scholar
Wells, G., & Chang-Wells, G. L.
(1992) Constructing knowledge together: Classrooms as centers of inquiry and literacy. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Woods, D.
(1996) Teacher cognition in language teaching: Beliefs, decision-making & classroom practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Zhang, E. Y.
(2007) TBLT-innovation in primary school English language teaching in mainland China. In K. Van den Branden, K. Van Gorp, & M. Verhelst (Eds.), Tasks in action. Task-based language education from a classroom-based perspective (pp. 68–91). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars.Google Scholar
Cited by

Cited by 1 other publications

No author info given
2022.  In Pedagogical Realities of Implementing Task-Based Language Teaching [Task-Based Language Teaching, 14], Crossref logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 31 march 2022. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.