Developed since the early 1980s, Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is informed by theory and research findings in instructed second language acquisition (ISLA), as well as general educational theory and practice, and responds to the growing demand for language programs tailored for learners with distinct functional needs in a second language (L2). The paper reviews TBLT’s rationale and psycholinguistic underpinnings, and then briefly describes procedures, problems, and findings in each of the six basic steps and components in designing, implementing, and evaluating a TBLT program – needs analysis, syllabus design, materials development, methodological principles and pedagogic procedures, student assessment, and course evaluation – before considering optimal and less than optimal settings for TBLT’s adoption. Expanded and modified considerably in response to developments in ISLA theory, research findings, and classroom implementation over the past 30+ years, TBLT remains a work in progress. As theorists, researchers, and practitioners, we are building the road as we travel.
Abrahamsson, N., & Hyltenstam, K. (2009). Age of onset and nativelikeness in a second language: Listener perception versus linguistic scrutiny. Language Learning, 59, 249–306.
Alderson, J.C., & Beretta, A. (Eds.) (1992). Evaluating second language education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Azurmendi, J. (1984). El hombre cooperative. Pensamiento de Arizmendiarrieta. Mondragon: Caja Laboral Popular.
Bachman, L.F., & Palmer, A.S. (1996). Language testing in practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bartlett, N.J.D. (2005). A double shot 2% mocha latte, please, with whip: Service encounters in two coffee shops and at a coffee cart. In M.H. Long (Ed.), Second language needs analysis (pp. 305–343). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Benson, S. (2013). TBLT: An empirical study of task transfer. Qualifying Paper. College Park, MD: University of Maryland, Ph.D. in Second Language Acquisition Program.
Beretta, A. (1986). Towards a methodology for ESL program evaluation. TESOL Quarterly, 20(1), 144–155.
Boers, F., & Lindstromberg, S. (2012). Experimental and intervention studies on formulaic sequences in a second language. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 32, 83–110.
Brown, J.D., & Hudson, T. (2002). Criterion-referenced language testing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Corder, S.P. (1967). The significance of learners’ errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 5, 161–170.
De la Fuente, M.J. (2006). Classroom L2 vocabulary acquisition: Investigating the role of pedagogical tasks and form-focused instruction. Language Teaching Research, 10, 263–295.
De Ridder, I., Vangehuchten, L., & Sesena Gomez, M. (2007). Enhancing automaticity through task-based language learning. Applied Linguistics, 28(2), 309–315.
DeKeyser, R. (2005). What makes learning second language grammar difficult? A review of issues. Language Learning, 55(Supplement 1), 1–21.
Doughty, C.J. (2001). Cognitive underpinnings of focus on form. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 206–57). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Doughty, C.J. (2003). Instructed SLA: Constraints, compensation, and enhancement. In C.J. Doughty & M.H. Long (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 256–310). Oxford: Blackwell.
Doughty, C.J., & Long, M.H. (2003). Optimal psycholinguistic environments for distance foreign language learning. Language Learning and Technology, 7(3), 50–80. <[URL]>
Doughty, C.J., & Williams, J. (1998). Pedagogical choices in focus on form. In C.J. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 197–261). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, N.C. (2005). At the interface: Dynamic interactions of explicit and implicit language knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27, 305–52.
Ellis, N.C. (2006). Selective attention and transfer phenomena in L2 acquisition: Contingency, cue competition, salience, interference, overshadowing, blocking, and perceptual learning. Applied Linguistics, 27(2), 164–94.
Ellis, N.C. (2007). The associative-cognitive CREED. In B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition. An introduction (pp. 77–95). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ellis, N.C. (2008). Usage-based and form-focused language acquisition: The associative learning of constructions, learned attention, and the limited L2 end-state. In P. Robinson & N.C. Ellis (Eds.), Handbook of cognitive linguistics and second language acquisition (pp. 372–405). New York, NY: Routledge.
Ellis, N.C. (2009). Optimizing the input: Frequency and sampling in usage-based and form-focussed learning. In M.H. Long & C.J. Doughty, (Eds.), Handbook of language teaching (pp. 139–158). Oxford: Blackwell.
Ellis, R. (1989). Are classroom and naturalistic language acquisition the same? A study of the classroom acquisition of German word order rules. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 11(3), 305–28.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R. (2012). Language teaching research and language pedagogy. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Gass, S.M. (1997). Input, interaction, and the development of second languages. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
González-Lloret, M. (2003). Designing task-based CALL to promote interaction: En Busca de Esmeraldas. Language Learning & Technology, 7(1), 86–104. Retrieved February 3, 2003, from <[URL]>
Gonzalez-Lloret, M., & Nielson, K.B. (2014). Evaluating TBLT: The case of a task-based Spanish program. Language Teaching Research, 19(1).
Goo, J., & Mackey, A. (2013). The case against the case against recasts. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35(1), 127–165.
Granena, G., & Long, M.H. (2013). Age of onset, length of residence, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment in three linguistic domains. Second Language Research, 29(3), 311–343.
Hoyer, W.J., & Lincourt, A.E. (1998). Ageing and the development of learning. In M.A. Stadler & P.A. Frensch (Eds.), Handbook of implicit learning (pp. 445–470). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hyltenstam, K. (1977). Implicational patterns in interlanguage syntax variation. Language Learning, 27(2), 383–411.
Hyltenstam, K. (1984). The use of typological markedness conditions as predictors in second language acquisition: the case of pronominal copies in relative clauses. In R.W. Andersen (Ed.), Second language: A cross-linguistic perspective (pp. 39–58). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Janacsek, K., Fiser, J., & Nemeth, D. (2012). The best time to acquire new skills: age-related differences in implicit sequence learning across the human lifespan. Developmental Science, 15(4), 496–505.
Kim, Y., Kong, D.-K., Lee, J.-H., & Lee, Y-G. (2000). Implementation and evaluation of an approach to task-based Korean language teaching. Honolulu, HI: National Foreign Language Resource Center, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. [An abridged version of this paper appeared with the same title in Korean language in America (Vol. 6, pp. 45-51, 2001), the Proceedings of the 6th Annual American Association of Teachers of Korean].
Krashen, S.D., & Terrell, T. (1983). The natural approach. Hayward, CA: Alemany Press.
Lai, C., Zhao, Y., & Wang, J. (2011). Task-based language teaching in online ab initio foreign language classrooms. Modern Language Journal, 95(Supplementary Issue), 81–103.
Li, S. (2010). The effectiveness of corrective feedback in SLA: A meta-analysis. Language Learning, 60(2), 309–365.
Lightbown, P.M. (1983). Exploring relations between developmental and instructional sequences in L2 acquisition. In H.G. Seliger & M.H. Long (Eds.), Classroom-oriented research in second language acquisition (pp. 217–43). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Long, M.H. (1984). Process and product in ESL program evaluation. TESOL Quarterly, 18(3), 409–425.
Long, M.H. (1985). A role for instruction in second language acquisition: Task-based language teaching. In K. Hyltenstam & M. Pienemann (Eds.), Modeling and assessing second language acquisition (pp. 77–99). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Long, M.H. (1996). The Mondragon Co-operative Federation: A model for our times?Libertarian Labor Review, 19, 19–36.
Long, M.H. (2000). Focus on form in Task-Based Language Teaching. In R.E. Lambert & E. Shohamy (Eds.), Language policy and pedagogy. Essays in honor of A. Ronald Walton (pp. 179–92). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Long, M.H. (Ed.) (2005a). Second language needs analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Long, M.H. (2005b). Methodological issues in learner needs analysis. In M.H. Long (Ed.), Second language needs analysis (pp. 19–76). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Long, M.H. (2009). Methodological principles in language teaching. In M.H. Long & C.J. Doughty (Eds.), Handbook of language teaching (pp. 373–94). Oxford: Blackwell.
Long, M.H. (2013). Identifying and satisfying language needs in the tourist industry. Plenary address to the first annual conference on Language and Tourism. Mallorca: University of the Balearic Islands, April 14-15, 2011. In G.I. Bosch Roig (Ed.), Teaching foreign languages for tourism: Research and practice (pp. 21–44). Bern: Peter Lang.
Long, M.H. (2015). Second language acquisition and Task-Based Language Teaching. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Long, M.H., & Crookes, G. (1987). Intervention points in second language classrooms. In B. Das (Ed.), Patterns of interaction in classrooms in Southeast Asia (pp. 177–203). Singapore: Regional English Language Centre.
Long, M.H., & Crookes, G. (1992). Three approaches to task-based syllabus design. TESOL Quarterly, 26(1), 27–56.
Long, M.H., & Norris, J.M. (2000). Task-based teaching and assessment. In M. Byram, (Ed.), Encyclopedia of language teaching (pp. 597–603). London: Routledge.
Long, M.H., & Norris, J.M. (2014). Research issues and evaluation frameworks in task-based language assessment. Ms.
Long, M.H., & Robinson, P. (1998). Focus on form: Theory, research, and practice. In C. Doughty, & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 15–41). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Long, M.H., & Sato, C.J. (1984). Methodological issues in interlanguage studies: an interactionist perspective. In A. Davies, C. Criper & A.P.R. Howatt (Eds.), Interlanguage (pp. 253–80). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Lynch, B.K. (1990). A context-adaptive model for program evaluation. TESOL Quarterly, 24(1), 23–42.
Lynch, B.K. (1996). Language program evaluation: Theory and practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mackey, A. (1999). Input, interaction and second language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 4, 557–587.
Mackey, A. (2012). Input, interaction, and corrective feedback in L2 learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mackey, A., & Goo, J. (2007). Interaction research in SLA: A meta-analysis and research synthesis. In A. Mackey (Ed.), Conversational interaction in second language acquisition (pp. 407–452). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Markee, N. (1993). The diffusion of innovation in language teaching. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 229–243.
Markee, N. (1997). Second language acquisition research: A resource for changing teachers’ professional cultures?Modern Language Journal, 81(1), 80–93.
Markee, N. (2007). Managing curricular innovation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McDonough, K., & Chaitmongkol, W. (2007). Teachers’ and learners’ reactions to a task-based EFL course in Thailand. TESOL Quarterly, 41(1), 107–132.
Messick, S. (1994). The interplay of evidence and consequences in the validation of performance assessments. Educational Researcher, 23, 13–23.
Morrison, R. (1991). We build the road as we travel: Mondragon, a co-operative system. Philadelphia, PA: New Society Publishers.
Musumechi, D. (1997). An exploration of the historical relationship between theory and practice in second language teaching. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Nation, I.S.P. (2006). How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening?Canadian Modern Language Review, 63, 59–82.
Nielson, K.B., Masters, M.C., Rhoades, E., & Freynik, S. (2009). Prototype implementation of an online Chinese course: An analysis of course implementation and learner performance. (TTO 82131). College Park, MD: University of Maryland Center for Advanced Study of Language.
Norris, J.M. (2009). Task-based teaching and testing. In M.H. Long & C.J. Doughty (Eds.), Handbook of language teaching (pp. 578–594). Oxford: Blackwell.
Norris, J.M., & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50(3), 417–528.
Ortega, L. (2009). Sequences and processes in language learning. In M.H. Long & C.J. Doughty. (Eds.), Handbook of language teaching (pp. 81–105). Oxford: Blackwell.
Pavesi, M. (1986). Markedness, discoursal modes, and relative clause formation in a formal and an informal context. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 8(1), 38–55.
Pica, T. (1994). Research on negotiation: What does it reveal about second language learning conditions, processes, and outcomes?Language Learning, 44(4), 493–527.
Pica, T. (2009). Second language acquisition in the instructional environment. In W.C. Ritchie & T.K. Bhatia (Eds.), The new handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 473–501). Bingley, UK: Emerald.
Pienemann, M. (1984). Psychological constraints on the teachability of languages. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 6(2), 186–214.
Pienemann, M. (2011). Explaining developmental schedules. In M. Pienemann & J.-V. Kessler (Eds.), Studying processability theory (pp. 50–63). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Robinson, P. (2001). Task complexity, cognitive resources, and second language syllabus design. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 149–95). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Robinson, P. (2007). Criteria for classifying and sequencing pedagogic tasks. In M.P. Garcia Mayo (Ed.), Investigating tasks in formal language learning (pp. 7–26). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Sato, C.J. (1990). The syntax of conversation in interlanguage development. Tubingen: Gunter Narr.
Schmidt, R.W. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3–32). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shintani, N. (2011). A comparative study of the effects of input-based and production-based instruction on vocabulary acquisition by young EFL learners. Language Teaching Research, 15, 137–158.
Shintani, N. (2012). Repeating input-based tasks with young beginner learners. RELC Journal, 43(1), 39–51.
Shintani, N. (2013). The effect of focus on form and focus on forms instruction on the acquisition of productive knowledge of L2 vocabulary by young beginner learners. TESOL Quarterly, 47(1), 36–62.
Shintani, N., & Ellis, R. (2010). The incidental acquisition of English plural -s by Japanese children in comprehension-based and production-based lessons: A process-product study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 32(4), 607–637.
Sorace, A. (2003). Near-nativeness. In C.J. Doughty & M.H. Long (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 130–152). Oxford: Blackwell.
Stauble, A.-M. (1984). A comparison of the Spanish-English and Japanese-English interlanguage continuum. In R.W. Andersen (Ed.), Second language: A cross-linguistic perspective (pp. 323–353). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Swain, M. (1991). French immersion and its offshoots: Getting two for one. In B. Freed (Ed.), Foreign language acquisition research and the classroom (pp. 91–103). Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.
Van den Branden, K. (Ed.) (2006a). Task-based language education: From theory to practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Van den Branden, K. (2006b). Training teachers: Task-based as well? In K. Van den Branden (Ed.), Task-based language education: From theory to practice (pp. 217–248). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
White, L. (1987). Against comprehensible input; The Input Hypothesis and the development of L2 competence. Applied Linguistics, 8(1), 95–110.
Widdowson, H.G. (1972). The teaching of English as communication. English Language Teaching, 27(1), 15–19.
Whyte, W.F., & Whyte, K.K. (1991). Making Modragon: The growth and dynamics of the worker co-operative complex (Second edition). Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.
Wilkins, D. (1976). Notional syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Yano, Y., Long, M.H., & Ross, S. (1994). The effects of simplified and elaborated texts on foreign language reading comprehension. Language Learning, 44(2), 189–219.
Zobl, H. (1982). A direction for contrastive analysis: The comparative study of developmental sequences. TESOL Quarterly 16(2), 169–183.
Cited by (8)
Cited by eight other publications
刘, 馨月
2023. Teacher’s Talk in Task-Based Language Teaching Context—Study on the Efficacy of Teacher’s L1 Use in Chinese EFL Classroom. Overseas English Testing: Pedagogy and Research 05:03 ► pp. 119 ff.
2021. Investigating EFL teachers’ perceptions of task-based language teaching in higher education in China. The Language Learning Journal 49:2 ► pp. 131 ff.
Norris, John M.
2021. The Long road to TBLT. TASK. Journal on Task-Based Language Teaching and Learning 1:2 ► pp. 162 ff.
Wang, Zhan, Peter Skehan & Gaowei Chen
2019. The effects of hybrid online planning and L2 proficiency on video-based speaking task performance. Instructed Second Language Acquisition 3:1 ► pp. 53 ff.
2017. Implementation of a Localized Task‐Based Course in an EFL Context: A Study of Students’ Evolving Perceptions. TESOL Quarterly 51:3 ► pp. 632 ff.
East, Martin
2015. Task-Based Teaching and Learning: Pedagogical Implications. In Second and Foreign Language Education, ► pp. 1 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 27 september 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.