This chapter reviews pragmatic development in the first two years of life. We first concentrate on the period from birth to nine months, during which time communication is essentially dyadic in nature: it is not ‘about’ some third entity but rather involves the infant and caregiver responding to each other (including turn taking, emotional attunement, imitation, and responsiveness to eye contact, speech and temporal contingency). We next examine the period after nine months of age when infants begin to enter into triadic communication. During this period, the infant and caregiver communicate about or jointly attend to things that are external to the dyad, and infant abilities extend to reading intentions, initiating and responding to joint attention, and appealing to common ground. We argue that a better understanding of this period is essential to providing a full picture of the nature of human communication.
Akhtar, N., & Gernsbacher, M.A. (2008). On privileging the role of gaze in infant social cognition. Child Development Perspectives, 2(2), 59–65.
Allwood, J. (1981). On the distinction between semantics and pragmatics. In W. Klein & W. Levelt (Eds.), Crossing the Boundaries in Linguistics (pp. 174–189). Dordrecht: Reidel.
Ariel, M. (2010). Defining Pragmatics: Cambridge: CUP.
Austin, J.L. (1962). How to Do Things with Words. Oxford: OUP.
Bakeman, R., & Adamson, L.B. (1984). Coordinating attention to people and objects in mother-infant and peer-infant interaction. Child Development, 55(4), 1278–1289.
Baldwin, D.A. (1991). Infants’ contribution to the achievement of joint reference. Child Development, 62(5), 875–890.
Bannard, C., & Tomasello, M. (2012). Can we dissociate contingency learning from social learning in word acquisition by 24-month-olds?PLoS ONE, 7(11), e49881.
Baron-Cohen, S. (1989). Perceptual role taking and protodeclarative pointing in autism. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7(2), 113–127.
Bates, E., Camaioni, L., & Volterra, V. (1975). The acquisition of performatives prior to speech. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, 21(3), 205–226.
Bates, E. (1976). Language and Context: Studies in the Acquisition of Pragmatics. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Bates, E. (2003). Natura e cultura nel linguaggio [On the nature and nurture of language]. In E. Bizzi, P. Calissano & V. Volterra (Eds.), Frontiere della Biologia: Il Cervello di Homo Sapiens [Frontiers of Biology: The Brain of Homo Sapiens] (pp. 241–265). Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana fondata da Giovanni Trecanni.
Bateson, M.C. (1979). The epigenesis of conversational interaction: A personal account of research and development. In M. Bullowa (Ed.), Before Speech: The Beginnings of Human Communication (pp. 63–77). London: CUP.
Batki, A., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Connellan, J., & Ahluwalia, J. (2000). Is there an innate gaze module? Evidence from human neonates. Infant Behavior and Development, 23(2), 223–229.
Beaumont, S.L., & Bloom, K. (1993). Adults’ attributions of intentionality to vocalizing infants. First Language, 13(38), 235–247.
Behne, T., Carpenter, M., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2005). Unwilling versus unable: Infants’ understanding of intentional action. Developmental Psychology, 41(2), 328–337.
Bergelson, E., & Swingley, D. (2012). At 6–9 months, human infants know the meanings of many common nouns. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(9), 3253–3258.
Breheny, R. (2006). Communication and folk psychology. Mind & Language, 21(1), 74–107.
Brooks, R., & Meltzoff, A.N. (2005). The development of gaze following and its relation to language. Developmental Science, 8(6), 535–543.
Bruner, J. (1981). The social context of language acquisition. Language & Communication, 1(2–3), 155–178.
Bruner, J.S. (1983). Child’s Talk. New York, NY: Norton.
Bushneil, I., Sai, F., & Mullin, J. (1989). Neonatal recognition of the mother’s face. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7(1), 3–15.
Butterworth, G.E. (2003). Pointing is the royal road to language for babies. In S. Kita (Ed.), Pointing: Where Language, Culture, and Cognition Meet (pp. 9–33). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Butterworth, G.E., & Grover, L. (1988). The origins of referential communication in human infancy. In L. Weiskrantz (Ed.), Thought without Language (pp. 5–25). Oxford: OUP.
Camaioni, L. (1993). The development of intentional communication: A re-analysis. In J. Nadel & L. Camaioni (Eds.), New Perspectives in Early Communicative Development (pp. 82–96). London: Routledge.
Callaghan, T., Moll, H., Rakoczy, H., Behne, T., Liszkowski, U., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Early social cognition in three cultural contexts. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 76(2), 1–142.
Cameron-Faulkner, T. (2013). The interaction of gesture, intonation, and eye-gaze in proto-imperatives. Journal of Child Language, FirstView, 1–19.
Carpendale, J.I.M., & Carpendale, A.B. (2010). The development of pointing: From personal directedness to interpersonal direction. Human Development, 53(3), 110–126.
Carpendale, J.I.M., & Lewis, C. (2004). Constructing an understanding of mind: The development of children’s social understanding within social interaction. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 27(1), 79–96.
Carpenter, M. (2012). Joint attention in humans and animals. In N. Seel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning (pp. 1663–1664). Berlin: Springer.
Carpenter, M., Akhtar, N., & Tomasello, M. (1998). Fourteen- through 18-month-old infants differentially imitate intentional and accidental actions. Infant Behavior and Development, 21(2), 315–330.
Carpenter, M., Nagell, K., & Tomasello, M. (1998). Social cognition, joint attention, and communicative competence from 9 to 15 months of age. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 63(4), i-iv, 1–143.
Carpenter, R.L.T.U.o.W., Mastergeorge, A.M.P.S., Hearing, C., & Coggins, T.E.T.U.o.W. (1983). The acquisition of communicative intentions in infants eight to fifteen months of age. Language and Speech, 26, 101.
Clark, H.H., & Wilkes-Gibbs, D. (1986). Referring as a collaborative process. Cognition, 22(1), 1–39.
Colonnesi, C., Stams, G.J.J.M., Koster, I., & Noom, M.J. (2010). The relation between pointing and language development: A meta-analysis. Developmental Review, 30(4), 352–366.
Cooper, R.P., & Aslin, R.N. (1990). Preference for infant-directed speech in the first month after birth. Child Development, 61, 1584–1595.
Corkum, V., & Moore, C. (1995). Development of joint visual attention in infants. In C. Moore & P.J. Dunham (Eds.), Joint Attention: Its Origins and Role in Development (pp. 61–83). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Csibra, G. (2010). Recognizing communicative intentions in infancy. Mind & Language, 25(2), 141–168.
Csibra, G., & Gergely, G. (2009). Natural pedagogy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(4), 148–153.
Daum, M.M., Ulber, J., & Gredeback, G. (2013). The development of pointing perception in infancy: Effects of communicative signals on covert shifts of attention. Developmental Psychology, 49(10), 1898–1908.
D’Entremont, B., Hains, S.M.J., & Muir, D.W. (1997). A demonstration of gaze following in 3- to 6-month-olds. Infant Behavior and Development, 20(4), 569–572.
Daum, M.M., Ulber, J., & Gredeback, G. (2013). The development of pointing perception in infancy: Effects of communicative signals on covert shifts of attention. Developmental Psychology, 49(10), 1898–1908.
DeCasper, A.J., & Fifer, W.P. (1980). Of human bonding: Newborns prefer their mothers’ voices. Science, 208(4448), 1174–1176.
Eilan, N. (2005). Joint attention, communication and mind. In N. Eilan, C. Hoerl, T. McCormack & J. Roessler (Eds.), Joint Attention: Communication and Other Minds (pp. 1–33). Oxford: OUP.
Esteve-Gibert, N., & Prieto, P. (2012). Prosody signals the emergence of intentional communication in the first year of life: Evidence from Catalan-babbling infants. Journal of Child Language, FirstView, 1–26.
Farroni, T., Csibra, G., Simion, F., & Johnson, M.H. (2002). Eye contact detection in humans from birth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(14), 9602–9605.
Farroni, T., Menon, E., & Johnson, M.H. (2006). Factors influencing newborns’ preference for faces with eye contact. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 95(4), 298–308.
Fernald, A. (1993). Approval and disapproval: Infant responsiveness to vocal affect in familiar and unfamiliar languages. Child Development, 64(3), 657–674.
Fernald, A., Taeschner, T., Dunn, J., Papousek, M., de Boysson-Bardies, B., & Fukui, I. (1989). A cross-language study of prosodic modifications in mothers’ and fathers’ speech to preverbal infants. Journal of Child Language, 16(03), 477–501.
Field, T., Healy, B., Goldstein, S., Perry, S., & Bendell, D. (1988). Infants of depressed mothers show “depressed” behavior even with nondepressed adults. Child Development, 59(6), 1569–1579.
Fillmore, C.J. (1971). Verbs of judging: An exercise in semantic description. In C.J. Fillmore & D.T. Langendoen, (Eds.), Studies in Linguistic Semantics (pp. 273–289). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Gergely, G., & Watson, J. (1999). Early socio-emotional development: Contingency perception and the social biofeedback model. In P. Rochat (Ed.), Early Social Cognition: Understanding Others in the First Months of Life (pp. 101–136). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Gergely, G., Bekkering, H., & Király, I. (2002). Developmental psychology: Rational imitation in preverbal infants. Nature, 415(6873), 755.
Golinkoff, R.M. (1983). The preverbal negotiation of failed messages: Insights into the transition period. In R.M. Golinkoff (Ed.), The Transition from Prelinguistic to Linguistic Communication (pp. 57–78). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Golinkoff, R.M. (1993). When is communication a ‘meeting of minds’?Journal of Child Language, 20(1), 199–207.
Golinkoff, R.M., & Gordon, L. (1988). What makes communication run? Characteristics of immediate successes. First Language, 8(23), 103–124.
Goren, C.C., Sarty, M., & Wu, P.Y.K. (1975). Visual following and pattern discrimination of face-like stimuli by newborn infants. Pediatrics, 56, 544–549.
Grice, H.P. (1957). Meaning. The Philosophical Review, 66(3), 377–388.
Grice. H.P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole & J.L. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and Semantics, Vol 3, Speech acts. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Grosse, G., Behne, T., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2010). Infants communicate in order to be understood. Developmental Psychology, 46(6), 1710–1722.
Grosse, G., Scott-Phillips, T.C., & Tomasello, M. (2013, March11). Three-year-olds hide their communicative intentions in appropriate contexts. Developmental Psychology. Advance online publication.
Grossmann, T., Johnson, M.H., Lloyd-Fox, S., Blasi, A., Deligianni, F., Elwell, C., & Csibra, G. (2008). Early cortical specialization for face-to-face communication in human infants. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 275(1653), 2803–2811.
Henning, A., & Striano, T. (2011). Infant and maternal sensitivity to interpersonal timing. Child Development, 82(3), 916–931.
Henning, A., Striano, T., & Lieven, E.V.M. (2005). Maternal speech to infants at 1 and 3 months of age. Infant Behavior and Development, 28(4), 519–536.
Hepper, P.G., Scott, D., & Shahidullah, S. (1993). Newborn and fetal response to maternal voice. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 11, 147–153.
Jaffe, J., Beebe, B., Feldstein, S., Crown, C.L., & Jasnow, M. (2001). Rhythms of dialogue in infancy: Coordinated timing in development. Monograph of the Society for Research in Child Development, 66(2, Serial No. 131).
Johnson, M.H., & Morton, J. (1991). Biology and Cognitive Development: The Case of Face Recognition. Oxford: Blackwell.
Johnson, S., Slaughter, V., & Carey, S. (1998). Whose gaze will infants follow? The elicitation of gaze-following in 12-month-olds. Developmental Science, 1(2), 233–238.
Kaye, K., & Charney, R. (1981). Conversational asymmetry between mothers and children. Journal of Child Language, 8(01), 35–49.
Kaye, K. (1982). The Mental and Social Life of Babies: How Parents Create Persons. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Kaye, K., & Wells, A.J. (1980). Mothers’ jiggling and the burst. Pause pattern in neonatal feeding. Infant Behavior and Development, 3(0), 29–46.
Keller, H., & Schölmerich, A. (1987). Infant vocalizations and parental reactions during the first 4 months of life. Developmental Psychology, 23(1), 62–67.
Kita, S. (2003). Pointing: Where Language, Culture, and Cognition Meet. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kozak-Mayer, N., & Tronick, E.Z. (1985). Mothers’turn-giving signals and infant turn-taking in mother–infant interaction. In T.M. Field & N.A. Fox (Eds.), Social Perception in Infants (pp. 199–216). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Lamb, M.E., Bornstein, M.H., & Teti, D.M. (2002). Development in Infancy (4th Ed). Hove: Psychology Press.
Lavelli, M., & Fogel, A. (2005). Developmental changes in the relationship between the infant’s attention and emotion during early face-to-face communication: The 2-month transition. Developmental Psychology, 41(1), 265–280.
Legerstee, M. (2005). Infants’ Sense of People: Precursors to a Theory of Mind. Cambridge: CUP.
Legerstee, M., & Markova, G. (2008). Variations in 10-month-old infant imitation of people and things. Infant Behavior and Development, 31(1), 81–91.
Legerstee, M., Pomerleau, A., Malcuit, G., & Feider, H. (1987). The development of infants’ responses to people and a doll: Implications for research in communication. Infant Behavior and Development, 10(1), 81–95.
Liszkowski, U. (2011). Three lines in the emergence of prelinguistic communication and social cognition. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 10(1), 32–43.
Liszkowski, U., Carpenter, M., Henning, A., Striano, T., & Tomasello, M. (2004). Twelve-month-olds point to share attention and interest. Developmental Science, 7(3), 297–307.
Liszkowski, U., Carpenter, M., Striano, T., & Tomasello, M. (2006). 12- and 18-month-olds point to provide information for others. Journal of Cognition and Development, 7(2), 173–187.
Liszkowski, U., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Individual differences in social, cognitive, and morphological aspects of infant pointing. Cognitive Development, 26(1), 16–29.
Markova, G., & Legerstee, M. (2006). Contingency, imitation, and affect sharing: Foundations of infants’ social awareness. Developmental Psychology, 42(1), 132–141.
Markova, G., & Legerstee, M. (2008). How infants come to learn about the minds of others. Zero to Three, 28(5), 26–32.
Masataka, N. (2003). The Onset of Language. Cambridge: CUP.
Masur, E.F., Flynn, V., & Eichorst, D.L. (2005). Maternal responsive and directive behaviors and utterances as predictors of children’s lexical development. Journal of Child Language, 32, 63–91.
Matthews, D., Behne, T., Lieven, E., & Tomasello, M. (2012). Origins of the human pointing gesture: A training study. Developmental Science, 15(6), 817–829.
McCune, L. (1992). First words: A dynamic systems view. In C.A. Ferguson, L. Menn, & C. Steol-Gammon (Eds.), Phonological Development: Models, Research, Implications (pp. 313–336). Parkon, MD: York.
Meltzoff, A.N. (1995). Understanding the intentions of others: Re-enactment of intended acts by 18-month-old children. Developmental Psychology, 31(5), 838–850.
Meltzoff, A.N. (2007). The ‘like me’ framework for recognizing and becoming an intentional agent. Acta Psychologica, 124(1), 26–43.
Meltzoff, A.N., & Gopnik, A. (1993). The role of imitation in understanding persons and developing a theory of mind. In S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg & D.J. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding Other Minds: Perspectives from Autism (pp. 335–366). Oxford: OUP.
Meltzoff, A.N., & Moore, M.K. (1994). Imitation, memory, and the representation of persons. Infant Behavior and Development, 17(1), 83–99.
Meltzoff, A.N., & Moore, M.K. (1989). Imitation in newborn infants: Exploring the range of gestures imitated and the underlying mechanisms. Developmental Psychology, 25(6), 954–962.
Miller, C.L. (1988). Parents’ perceptions and attributions of infant vocal behaviour and development. First Language, 8(23), 125–141.
Moore, C., & Corkum, V. (1994). Social understanding at the end of the first year of life. Developmental Review, 14(4), 349–372.
Moore, C., & D’Entremont, B. (2001). Developmental changes in pointing as a function of attentional focus. Journal of Cognition and Development, 2(2), 109–129.
Mundy, P., Block, J., Delgado, C., Pomares, Y., Van Hecke, A.V., & Parlade, M.V. (2007). Individual differences and the development of joint attention in infancy. Child Development, 78(3), 938–954.
Mundy, P., & Newell, L. (2007). Attention, joint attention, and social cognition. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(5), 269–274.
Murray, L., & Trevarthen, C. (1985). Emotional regulations of interactions between two-month-olds and their mothers. In T.M. Field & N.A. Fox (Eds.), Social Perception in Infants (pp. 177–197). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Ninio, A. & Snow, C. (1996). Pragmatic Development. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Panneton Cooper, R. & Aslin, R.N. (1990). Preference for infant-directed speech in the first month after birth. Child Development, 61(5), 1584–1595.
Papaeliou, C., Minadakis, G., & Cavouras, D. (2002). Acoustic patterns of infant vocalizations expressing emotions and communicative functions. J Speech Lang Hear Res, 45(2), 311–317.
Papaeliou, C.F., & Trevarthen, C. (2006). Prelinguistic pitch patterns expressing ‘communication’ and ‘apprehension’. Journal of Child Language, 33(01), 163–178.
Peña, M., Maki, A., Kovačić, D., Dehaene-Lambertz, G., Koizumi, H., Bouquet, F., & Mehler, J. (2003). Sounds and silence: An optical topography study of language recognition at birth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(20), 11702–11705.
Phillips, A.T., Wellman, H.M., & Spelke, E.S. (2002). Infants’ ability to connect gaze and emotional expression to intentional action. Cognition, 85(1), 53–78.
Piaget, J. (1954). The Origins of Intelligence in Children. New York, NY: Norton.
Reddy, V. (2008). How Infants Know Minds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Rochat, P., Querido, J.G., & Striano, T. (1999). Emerging sensitivity to the timing and structure of protoconversation in early infancy. Developmental Psychology, 35(4), 950–957.
Rommetveit, R. (1974). On Message Structure: A Framework for the Study of Language and Communication. London: John Wiley & Sons.
Salomo, D., & Liszkowski, U. (2013). Sociocultural settings influence the emergence of prelinguistic deictic gestures. Child Development, 84(4), 1296–1307.
Scaife, M., & Bruner, J.S. (1975). The capacity for joint visual attention in the infant. Nature, 253(5489), 265–266.
Scarr, S. (1992). Developmental theories for the 1990s: Development and individual differences. Child Development, 63(1), 1–19.
Schwier, C., van Maanen, C., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Rational imitation in 12 months olds. Infancy, 10(3), 303–311.
Searle, J.R. (1969). Speech Acts. Cambridge: CUP.
Senju, A., & Csibra, G. (2008). Gaze following in human infants depends on communicative signals. Current Biology, 18(9), 668–671.
Shatz, M., & O’Reilly, A.W. (1990). Conversational or communicative skill? A reassessment of two-year-olds’ behaviour in miscommunication episodes. Journal of Child Language, 17(01), 131–146.
Snow, C.E. (1977). The development of conversation between mothers and babies. Journal of Child Language, 4(01), 1–22.
Southgate, V., Van Maanen, C., & Csibra, G. (2007). Infant Pointing: Communication to cooperate or communication to learn?Child Development, 78(3), 735–740.
Sperber, D. & Wilson, D. (1995). Relevance: Communication and Cognition. Second Edition. Oxford: Blackwell.
Stern, D.N. (1985). Affect attunement. In J.D. Call, E. Galenson & R.L. Tyson (Eds.), Frontiers of Infant Psychiatry (Vol. 2, pp. 3–14). New York, NY: Basic Books.
Striano, T., & Stahl, D. (2005). Sensitivity to triadic attention in early infancy. Developmental Science, 8(4), 333–343.
Toda, S., & Fogel, A. (1993). Infant response to the still-face situation at 3 and 6 months. Developmental Psychology, 29(3), 532–538.
Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing a Language: A Usage Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Tomasello, M. (2006). Rational imitation in 12-month-old infants Christiane Schwier, Catharine van Maanen, Malinda Carpenter. Infancy, 10(3), 303–311.
Tomasello, M. (2008). Origins of Human Communication. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Tomasello, M., & Carpenter, M. (2007). Shared intentionality. Developmental Science, 10(1), 121–125.
Tomasello, M., Carpenter, M., Call, J., Behne, T., & Moll, H. (2005). Understanding and sharing intentions: The origins of cultural cognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(5), 675–691.
Tomasello, M., & Herrmann, E. (2010). Ape and human cognition: What’s the difference?Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(1), 3–8.
Tamis-LeMonda, C.S., Bornstein, M.H., & Baumwell, L. (2001). Maternal responsiveness and children’s achievement of language milestones. Child Development, 72, 748–767.
Topál, J., Gergely, G., Miklósi, Á., Erdőhegyi, Á., & Csibra, G. (2008). Infants’ perseverative search errors are induced by pragmatic misinterpretation. Science, 321(5897), 1831–1834.
Trevarthen, C. (1979). Communication and co-operation in early infancy: A description of primary intersubjectivity. In M. Bullowa (Ed.), Before Speech: The Beginnings of Human Communication (pp. 321–347). Cambridge: CUP.
Tronick, E.Z., Als, H., & Adamson, L. (1979). The communicative structure of early face-to face interactions. In M. Bullowa (Ed.), Before Speech: The Beginnings of Human Communication (pp. 349–372). Cambridge: CUP.
Vihman, M.M. & DePaolis, R.A. (1998). Perception and production in early vocal development: Evidence from the acquisition of accent. In M.C. Gruber, D. Higgins, K.S. Olson, & T. Wysocki (Eds.). Chicago Linguistic Society 34, 373–86.
Vihman, M.M., & Miller, R. (1988). Words and babble at the threshold of language acquisition. In M.D. Smith & J. Locke (Eds.), The Emergent Lexicon: The Child’s Development of a Linguistic Vocabulary (pp. 151–184). New York: Academic Press.
Vouloumanos, A., & Werker, J.F. (2007). Listening to language at birth: Evidence for a bias for speech in neonates. Developmental Science, 10(2), 159–164.
Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical Investigations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Woodward, A.L. (1999). Infants’ ability to distinguish between purposeful and non-purposeful behaviors. Infant Behavior and Development, 22(2), 145–160.
Zeifman, D.M. (2001). An ethological analysis of human infant crying: Answering Tinbergen’s four questions. Developmental Psychobiology, 39(4), 265–285.
2021. Objects and materiality in pragmatic development: Here-and-now to then and-there. Multimodal Communication 10:1 ► pp. 19 ff.
Dosi, Ifigeneia & Savvas Sotiriadis
2020. Interventions for early language development in monolingual and bilingual children with autism spectrum disorders: Two case studies. International Journal of Research Studies in Education 9:7
Roche, Laura, Amarie Carnett, Jeff Sigafoos, Michelle Stevens, Mark F. O’Reilly, Giulio E. Lancioni & Peter B. Marschik
2019. Using a Textual Prompt to Teach Multiword Requesting to Two Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder. Behavior Modification 43:6 ► pp. 819 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 16 july 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.