Article In:
Translation Spaces: Online-First Articles

An eye-tracking study on the cognitive processing, reception, and perception of swearword translation in films

ORCID logo | University of New South Wales
ORCID logo | University of New South Wales
Technological advances lead to an increasing array of widely accessible online audiovisual (AV) products. However, translating these AV products poses challenges, especially for culturally sensitive content like swearwords. Using eye-tracking, this study investigates how audiences cognitively process translated swearwords in films from English to Chinese. The experiment involved 150 participants distributed among five different subtitling groups, with each group (n = 30) exposed to four clips under a distinct translation strategy for swearwords. While cognitive processing measures showed no significant differences across strategies, the mean fixation duration was notably higher in the softening strategy group during gunfight scenes, suggesting heightened audience engagement. Pre- and post-questionnaire responses revealed participants’ functional awareness of swearwords and a preference for literal translation. Additionally, no significant differences were found in immersion, satisfaction, enjoyment, comprehension, or perceived offensiveness across film clips. This study contributes empirically and methodologically to understanding subtitling practices, offering insights into audience reception.
Keywords: audience reception, audiovisual translation (AVT), English-Chinese, experimental study, eye-tracking, subtitling, swearwords
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Rationale of using eye-tracking for swearword translation in AVT research
  • 3.Methodology
    • 3.1Mixed-methods design
    • 3.2Sampling
      • 3.2.1Purposive sampling for film clips as stimuli
      • 3.2.2Convenience sampling for participants
    • 3.3Eye-tracking procedures
      • 3.3.1Justification of webcam eye-tracker
      • 3.3.2Experimental processes and groups
  • 4.Findings
    • 4.1Demographic information
    • 4.2Cognitive processing (RQ1)
      • 4.2.1Fixation-based eye movements
      • 4.2.2Attention distribution
    • 4.3Audience reception (RQ2)
    • 4.4Audience perception (RQ3)
      • 4.4.1Audience preferences
      • 4.4.2Audience opinions
  • 5.Discussion
    • 5.1The effects of translation strategies on audiences’ cognitive processing of swearwords (RQ1)
    • 5.2Audience reception and perception of translated swearwords (RQ2 & RQ3)
  • 6.Contribution, limitation and conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
This content is being prepared for publication; it may be subject to changes.
References (74)
References
Andersson, Lars-Gunnar, and Peter Trudgill. 1990. Bad Language. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Beers Fägersten, Kristy. 2012. Who’s swearing now?: The social aspects of conversational swearing. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.Google Scholar
. 2017. “The role of swearing in creating an online persona: The case of YouTuber PewDiePie.” Discourse, context & media 181: 1–10. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Black, Sharon. 2022. “Could integrated subtitles benefit young viewers? Children’s reception of standard and integrated subtitles: a mixed methods approach using eye tracking.” Perspectives 30 (3): 503–519. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Briechle, Lucia, and Eva Duran Eppler. 2019. “Swearword strength in subtitled and dubbed films: A reception study.” Intercultural Pragmatics 16 (4): 389–420. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Caffrey, Colm. 2012. “Using an eye-tracking tool to measure the effects of experimental subtitling procedures on viewer perception of subtitled AV content.” In Eye Tracking in Audiovisual Translation, edited by Elisa Perego, 223–258. Rome: Aracne.Google Scholar
Cambridge Dictionary. 2023. Swear word. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [URL]
Cellary, Adam. n.d. “Eye-tracking study — offline vs. online.” RealEye sp. z o.o. Retrieved June 3, 2022 from [URL]
Chen, Xijinyan. 2022. “Taboo Language in Non-Professional Subtitling on Bilibili. com: A Corpus-Based Study.” Languages 7 (2): 1–21. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cressman, Dale L., Mark Callister, Tom Robinson, and Chris Near. 2009. “Swearing in the cinema: An analysis of profanity in US teen-oriented movies, 1980–2006.” Journal of Children and Media 3 (2): 117–135. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Creswell, John, and Vicki Plano Clark. 2017. Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Di Giovanni, Elena, and Yves Gambier. 2018. Reception Studies and Audiovisual Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Díaz-Cintas, Jorge, and Aline Remael. 2014. Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling. London: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2021. Subtitling: Concepts and practices. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Díaz-Cintas, Jorge, and Agnieszka Szarkowska. 2020. “Introduction: Experimental research in audiovisual translation–Cognition, reception, production.” The Journal of Specialised Translation 331: 3–16. [URL]
Díaz-Pérez, Francisco Javier. 2020. “Translating swear words from English into Galician in film subtitles: A corpus-based study.” Babel 66 (3): 393–419. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Doherty, Stephen. 2016. “The impact of translation technologies on the process and product of translation.” International journal of communication 101: 947–969. [URL]
Doherty, Stephen, and Jan-Louis Kruger. 2018. “The development of eye tracking in empirical research on subtitling and captioning.” In Seeing into screens: Eye tracking and the moving image, edited by Tessa Dwyer, Claire Perkins, Sean Redmond, and Jodi Sita, 46–64. London: Bloomsbury. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
d’Ydewalle, Géry, Johan Van Rensbergen, and Joris Pollet. 1987. “Reading a Message when the Same Message is Available Auditorily in Another Language: The Case of Subtitling.” In Eye Movements: From Physiology to Cognition, edited by John Kevin O’Reagan, and Ariane Lévy Schoen, 313–321. Amsterdam: Elsevier. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Flis, Gabriela, Adam Sikorski, and Agnieszka Szarkowska. 2020. “Does the dubbing effect apply to voice-over? A conceptual replication study on visual attention and immersion.” The Journal of Specialised Translation 331: 41–69. [URL]
Fox, Wendy. 2016. “Integrated titles: An improved viewing experience?” In Eyetracking and Applied Linguistics, edited by Silvia Hansen-Schirra, and Sambor Grucza, 5–30. Berlin: Language Science Press.Google Scholar
. 2018. Can integrated titles improve the viewing experience?: Investigating the impact of subtitling on the reception and enjoyment of film using eye tracking and questionnaire data. Berlin: Language Science Press.Google Scholar
Ghia, Elisa. 2012. “The impact of translation strategies on subtitles reading.” In Eye Tracking in Audiovisual Translation, edited by Elisa Perego, 157–182. Rome: Aracne.Google Scholar
Greco, Gian Maria, Anna Jankowska, and Agnieszka Szarkowska. 2022. “Addressing methodological issues in experimental research in audiovisual translation.” Translation Spaces 11 (1): 1–11. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Han, Chong, and Kenny Wang. 2014. “Subtitling swearwords in reality TV series from English into Chinese: A corpus-based study of The Family.” Translation & Interpreting 6 (2): 1–17. [URL]
Hashish, Ruba, and Riyad F. Hussein. 2022. “Strategies Subtitlers Use in Rendering English Slang Expressions Into Arabic.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 12 (4): 752–762. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
He, Zhengguo. 2018. Multiple causality of differences in taboo translation of blockbuster films by Chinese fansubbers and professionals. PhD Thesis, Newcastle University.
Hjort, Minna. 2009. “Swearwords in Subtitles: A Balancing Act.” inTRAlinea: Online Translation Journal. [URL]
. 2009. “The utility and ubiquity of taboo words.” Perspectives on psychological science 4 (2): 153–161. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jiang, Qihang. 2023. A Corpus-based and Eye-Tracking Study on the Audience Reception and Processing of English-Chinese Swearwords Produced by Amateur (Fansubbing) and Professional (Prosubbing) Subtitling. PhD Thesis, University of New South Wales.
Jiang, Qihang, and Stephen Doherty. 2024. “A Corpus-based Study on the English-Chinese Swearwords Produced by Amateur (Fansubbing) and Professional (Prosubbing) Subtitling.” Perspectives. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Just, Marcel A., and Patricia A. Carpenter. 1980. “A theory of reading: from eye fixations to comprehension.” Psychological review 87 (4): 329–354. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kruger, Haidee, and Jan-Louis Kruger. 2017. “Cognition and reception.” In The handbook of translation and cognition, edited by John W. Schwieter, and Aline Ferreira, 71–89. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kruger, Jan-Louis, Stephen Doherty, Wendy Fox, and Peter De Lissa. 2018. “Multimodal measurement of cognitive load during subtitle processing: Same-language subtitles for foreign language viewers.” In Innovation and expansion in translation process research, edited by Isabel Lacruz, and Riitta Jääskeläinen, 267–294. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kruger, Jan-Louis, Stephen Doherty, and Ronny Ibrahim. 2017. “Electroencephalographic beta coherence as an objective measure of psychological immersion in film.” Rivista Internazionale di Tecnica della Traduzione/International Journal of Translation 2017 191: 99–111. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kruger, Jan-Louis, Stephen Doherty, and María-T. Soto-Sanfiel. 2017. “Original language subtitles: Their effects on the native and foreign viewer.” Comunicar. Media Education Research Journal 25 (50): 23–32. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kruger, Jan-Louis, and Sixin Liao. 2022. “Establishing a theoretical framework for AVT research: The importance of cognitive models.” Translation Spaces 11 (1): 12–37. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lee, James F., and Stephen Doherty. 2019. “Native and nonnative processing of active and passive sentences: the effects of processing instruction on the allocation of visual attention.” Studies in Second Language Acquisition 41 (4): 853–879. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lewandowska, Beata. n.d. “How to get accurate results?” RealEye sp. z o.o. Retrieved June 29, 2022, from [URL]
. n.d. “Webcam Eye-tracking Hardware and Software Requirements.” RealEye sp. z o.o. Retrieved Mar 23, 2024 from [URL]
. 2020. “RealEye Eye-tracking system Technology Whitepaper.” RealEye sp. z o.o. Retrieved Mar 23, 2024, from [URL]
Liao, Sixin, Jan-Louis Kruger, and Stephen Doherty. 2020. “The impact of monolingual and bilingual subtitles on visual attention, cognitive load, and comprehension.” The Journal of Specialised Translation 331: 70–98. [URL]
Ljung, Magnus. 2011. Swearing: A cross-cultural linguistic study. London: Palgrave.Google Scholar
McEnery, Tony. 2006. Swearing in English: Bad language, purity and power from 1586 to the present. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 2023. Swear word. Springfield: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. [URL]
Moran, Siobhan. 2012. “The effect of linguistic variation on subtitle reception.” In Eye Tracking in Audiovisual Translation, edited by Elisa Perego, 183–222. Rome: Aracne.Google Scholar
Orrego-Carmona, David. 2015. The reception of (non)professional subtitling. PhD Thesis, Universitat Rovira i Virgili. [URL]
. 2016. “A reception study on non-professional subtitling: do audiences notice any difference?.” Across Languages and Cultures 17 (2): 163–181. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Orero, Pilar, Stephen Doherty, Jan-Louis Kruger, Anna Matamala, Jan Pedersen, Elisa Perego, Pablo Romero-Fresco, Sara Rovira-Esteva, Olga Soler-Vilageliu, and Agnieszka Szarkowska. 2018. “Conducting experimental research in audiovisual translation (AVT): A position paper.” The Journal of Specialised Translation 301: 105–126. [URL]
Özbudak, Seda Kuşçu. 2021. “Turkish Subtitling of the F Word on the Digital Streaming Platform: Is There Censorship?.” Turkish Studies — Language and Literature 16 (3): 1991–2007. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pavesi, Maria, & Pablo Zamora. 2022. “The reception of swearing in film dubbing: a cross-cultural case study.” Perspectives, 30 (3): 382–398. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Perego, Elisa, Fabio Del Missier, Marco Porta, and Mauro Mosconi. 2010. “The cognitive effectiveness of subtitle processing.” Media psychology 13 (3): 243–272. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pérez-González, Luis. 2019. “From the ‘cinema of attractions’ to danmu: A multimodal-theory analysis of changing subtitling aesthetics across media cultures.” In Translation and Multimodality: Beyond Words, edited by Monica Boria, Ángeles Carreres, María Noriega-Sánchez, and Marcus Tomalin, 94–116. London: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pinker, Steven. 2008. The stuff of thought: Language as a window into human nature. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Rayner, Keith. 1998. “Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research.” Psychological bulletin 124 (3): 372–422. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, Keith, Kathryn H. Chace, Timothy J. Slattery, and Jane Ashby. 2006. “Eye movements as reflections of comprehension processes in reading.” Scientific studies of reading 10 (3): 241–255. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sahari, Yousef Mohammed. 2018. Translating swear words in Pulp Fiction: A comparative case study in DVD subtitles and internet fansubs. Masters Thesis, Macquarie University. DOI logo
Saldanha, Gabriela, and Sharon O’Brien. 2014. Research methodologies in translation studies. London: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Szarkowska, Agnieszka, and Olivia Gerber-Morón. 2018. “Viewers can keep up with fast subtitles: Evidence from eye movements.” PloS one 13 (6): 1–30. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Valdeón, Roberto A. 2022. “Latest trends in audiovisual translation.” Perspectives 30 (3): 369–381. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wajnryb, Ruth. 2005. Expletive Deleted: A Good Look at Bad Language. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Winters, Alaina M., and Steve Duck. 2001. “You ****! Swearing as an aversive & a relational activity.” In Behaving Badly: Aversive Behaviors in Interpersonal Relationships, eidited by Robin Kowalski, 59–77. Washington: American Psychological Association. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wissmath, Bartholomäus, David Weibel, and Rudolf Groner. 2009. “Dubbing or subtitling? Effects on spatial presence, transportation, flow, and enjoyment.” Journal of Media Psychology 21 (3): 114–125. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Yan, Guoli, Jianping Xiong, Chuanli Zang, Lili Yu, Lei Cui, and Xuejun Bai. 2013. “Review of eye-movement measures in reading research.” Advances in Psychological Science 21 (4): 589–605. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Yang, Yuhong. 2020. “The danmaku interface on Bilibili and the recontextualised translation practice: a semiotic technology perspective.” Social Semiotics 30 (2): 254–273. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2021a. “Danmaku subtitling: An exploratory study of a new grassroots translation practice on Chinese video-sharing websites.” Translation Studies 14 (1): 1–17. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2021b. “Making sense of the ‘raw meat’: A social semiotic interpretation of user translation on the danmu interface.” Discourse, Context & Media 441: 1–10. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2022. “Participatory viewers’ engagement with the dual translation problem on the danmu interface: A social semiotic case study.” Text & Talk 51: 1–24. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Leticia-Tian, and Daniel Cassany. 2019. “The ‘danmu’ phenomenon and media participation: Intercultural understanding and language learning through ‘The Ministry of Time’.” Comunicar 27 (58): 19–29. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2020. “Making sense of danmu: Coherence in massive anonymous chats on Bilibili. com.” Discourse Studies 22 (4): 483–502. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2021. “’The murderer is him✓’ Multimodal humor in danmu video comments.” Internet Pragmatics 4 (2): 272–294. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zheng, Binghan, and Mingqing Xie. 2018. “The effect of explanatory captions on the reception of foreign audiovisual products: A study drawing on eyetracking data and retrospective interviews.” Translation, Cognition & Behavior 1 (1): 119–146. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zheng, Binghan, and Hao Zhou. 2018. “Revisiting processing time for metaphorical expressions: An eye-tracking study on eye-voice span during sight translation.” Foreign Language Teaching and Research 50 (5): 744–759.Google Scholar