Cover not available
Part of
Investigating Language Isolates: Typological and diachronic perspectives
Edited by Iker Salaberri, Dorota Krajewska, Ekaitz Santazilia and Eneko Zuloaga
[Typological Studies in Language 135] 2025
► pp. 176–207

Combining disparate lines of evidence in the study of the history of language isolates, exemplified with Mochica from Northern Peru

ORCID logo | University of Tübingen
This article provides a synthesizing discussion of different lines of evidence for the linguistic history of the Mochica language (Northern Peru). Among the topics discussed are the inference of the former geographic extension through toponymic study; the study of indigenous personal names as a fertile source of information on grammatical structure, particularly the genesis and nature of an unusual numeral classifier system; internal reconstruction; local as well as rather spectacular cases of long-distance language contact; areal typology; sociolinguistic typology; the reconstruction of outlines of the social ecology of the language in its pre-Columbian context; and the interdisciplinary contextualization of linguistic data with that of other disciplines that study human prehistory. Thus, the article provides an exemplary case study of the richly textured picture which a multi-pronged approach can paint on the history of isolates.
Keywords: Mochica, Central Andes, language isolates, historical linguistics, language contact
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Background information on Mochica
  • 3.Phonetic and phonological structure: Change and stability in the attested period
  • 4.Toponymy and geographic extent
  • 5.Anthroponymy as a source for insights into grammatical structure and grammaticalization processes
  • 6.Internal reconstruction
  • 7.Loanwords
  • 8.Areal typology
  • 9.Sociolinguistic typology
  • 10.Interdisciplinary perspectives I: Language and society in prehistory
  • 11.Interdisciplinary perspectives II: Mochica and the Northern Peruvian interaction sphere in the context of archaeology and molecular anthropology
  • 12.Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • References
This content is being prepared for publication; it may be subject to changes.
References (112)
References
Adelaar, Willem F. H. 1990. Comment on Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino, Reconsideración del llamado “quechua costeño”. Revista Andina 8(2): 387–390.Google Scholar
2005. El esmeraldeño. Un idioma de la costa del Ecuador. In Contribuciones a las lenguas y culturas de los Andes: Homenaje a Alfredo Torero, Sabine Dedenbach-Salazar (ed), 233–246. Aachen: Shaker.Google Scholar
2007. The importance of toponymy, family names and historical documentation for the study of disappearing and recently extinct languages in the Andean region. In Language Endangerment and Endangered Languages. Linguistic and Anthropological Studies with Special Emphasis on the Languages and Cultures of the Andean-Amazonian Border Area, Leo W. Wetzels (ed), 325–331. Leiden: CNWS.Google Scholar
2008. Towards a typological profile of the Andean languages. In Evidence and Counter-evidence. Essays in Honour of Frederik Kortlandt, Vol. 2: General Linguistics, Alexander Lubotsky, Jos Schaeken, Jeroen Wiedenhof, Rick Derksen, & Sjoerd Siebinga (eds), 23–33. Amsterdam: Rodopi. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2012. Languages of the Middle Andes in areal-typological perspective: emphasis on Quechuan and Aymaran. In The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide, Lyle Campbell & Verónica Grondona (eds), 575–624. Berlin: De Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Adelaar, Willem F. H. & Muysken, Pieter C. 2004. The Languages of the Andes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Andrade, Luis. 2021. Las visitas a Cajamarca de 1571–1572 y 1578 como fuente para los estudios lingüísticos. Boletín de la Academia Peruana de la Lengua 69: 171–200. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Andrade, Luis & Bell, Martha G. 2016. Mapping colonial Quechua through trial interpretations in 17th-century Cajamarca. Colonial Latin American Review 25(4): 445–464. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Auer, Peter. 1993. Is a Rhythm-based Typology Possible? A Study of the Role of Prosody in Phonological Typology [KontRI Working Paper No. 21]. Konstanz: University of Konstanz.Google Scholar
Barbieri, Chiara, Barquera, Rodrigo, Arias, Leonardo, Sandoval, José R., Acosta, Oscar, Zurita, Camilo, Aguilar-Campos, Abraham, Tito-Álvarez, Ana M., Serrano-Osuna, Ricardo, Gray, Russel D., Heggarty, Paul, Shimizu, Kentaro K., Fujita, Ricardo, Stoneking, Mark, Pugach, Irina, & Fehren-Schmitz, Lars. 2018. The current genomic landscape of western South America: Andes, Amazonia and Pacific Coast. Molecular Biology and Evolution 36(12): 2698–2713. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bastien, Joseph H. 1978. Mountain of the Condor: Metaphor and Ritual in an Andean Ayllu. Long Grove: Waveland.Google Scholar
Bawden, Garth. 1996. The Moche. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Bellamy, Kate. 2018. Re-evaluating the “numeral classifier” system in Mochica. LIAMES: Línguas Indígenas Americanas 18(1): 81–86. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Benson, Elizabeth P. 2012. The Worlds of the Moche on the North Coast of Peru. Austin: University of Texas Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bickel, Balthasar. 2013. Distributional biases in language families. In Language Typology and Historical Contingency: In Honor of Johanna Nichols, Balthasar Bickel, Lenore A. Grenoble, David A. Peterson, & Alan Timberlake (eds), 415–444. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Brüning, Hans H. 2004. Mochica Wörterbuch. Diccionario Mochica. Mochica–Castellano / Castellano–Mochica, José A. Salas (ed). Lima: Universidad de San Martín de Porres.Google Scholar
Campbell, Lyle. 2017. Language isolates and their history. In Language Isolates [Routledge Language Family Series], Lyle Campbell (ed), 1–18. London/New York: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Carrera, Fernando de la. 1644. El Arte de la Lengva Yvnga de los Valles del Obispado de Truxillo del Peru, con vn Confessonario, y todas las Oraciones Christianas, Traducidas en la Lengua, y Otras Cosas. Lima: Joseph Contreras.Google Scholar
Castillo Butters, Luis J. & Donnan, Christopher B. 1994. Los mochicas del Norte y los mochicas del Sur. In Vicús, 142–181. Lima: Banco de Crédito del Perú.Google Scholar
Cerrón-Palomino, Rodolfo. 1995. La lengua de Naimlap (Reconstrucción y obsolescencia del Mochica). Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2004. Lenguas de la costa norte peruana. In Estudios en lenguas amerindias: Homenaje a Ken L. Hale, Zarina Estrada, Ana V. Fernández, & Albert Álvarez (eds), 81–105. Sonora: Unison.Google Scholar
. 2008. Voces del Ande: Ensayos sobre onomástica andina. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2010. Contactos y desplazamientos lingüísticos en los Andes centro-sureños: El puquina, el aimara, y el quechua. In Lenguas y sociedades en el antiguo Perú. Hacia un enfoque interdisciplinario. Peter Kaulicke, Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino, Paul Heggarty, & David Beresford-Jones (eds), 255–282. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chapdelaine, Claude. 2011. Recent advances in Moche archaeology. Journal of Archaeological Research 19: 191–231. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chero, Juan C., Peralta, Medali, & Chero, Luis E. 2012. Tūk Muchik. Manual básico para el aprendizaje del idioma muchik. San Borja: no editor.Google Scholar
Chousou-Polydouri, Natalia, Inman, David, Vuillermet, Marine, Parker van Dam, Kellen, Easterday, Shelence, & Rose, Françoise. 2021. Is there a typological profile of isolates? Paper presented at the 54th Annual Meeting of the Societas Linguistica Europaea, Athens, August-September 2021.
Christmann, Hans H. 1984. Wilhelm von Humboldts Schriften zum Baskischen und sein Begriff der Analogie. In Navicula Tubingensis: Studia in Honorem Antonii Tovar, Francisco J. Oroz, Eugenio Coseriu, & Carlo de Simone (eds), 85–88. Tübingen: Narr.Google Scholar
Constenla, Adolfo. 1991. Las lenguas del área intermedia: Introducción a su estudio areal. San Pedro: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica.Google Scholar
Cook, Noble D. 1981. Demographic Collapse. Indian Peru, 1520–1620. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dixon, R.M.W. & Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 1999. Introduction. In The Amazonian Languages, R.M.W. Dixon & Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald (eds), 1–21. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Donnan, Christopher B. 2010. Moche state religion. A unifying force in Moche political organization. In New Perspectives on Moche Political Organization, Jeffrey Quilter & Luis J. Castillo (eds), 47–69. Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection.Google Scholar
Eloranta, Rita. 2017. Language contact across the Andes: The case of Mochica and Hibito-Cholón. In Language Contact and Change in Mesoamerica and Beyond, Karen Dakin, Claudia Parodi, & Natalie Operstein (eds), 319–334. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Escribens, Augusto. 1977. Fonología del quechua de Ferreñafe. PhD dissertation, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos.
Expósito, Javier. 2020. La identidad muchik en Lambayeque, Perú: continuidad cultural, etnogénesis y etnicidad. Revista de Ciencias Sociales e Historia 4(1): 113–133. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hart, Helen. 1988. Diccionario chayahuita–castellano. Canponanquë Nisha Nisha Nonacaso’. Lima: Ministerio de Educación/Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.Google Scholar
Heggarty, Paul. 2008. Linguistics for archaeologists: A case-study in the Andes. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 18(1): 35–56. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2014. Prehistory through language and archaeology. In The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics, Claire Bowern & Bethwin Evans (eds), 598–626. London/New York: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Herrera, Americo, Ziemendorff, Michaela, & Ziemendorff, Stefan. 2019. Grabaciones del extinto idioma mochica. Indiana 36(1): 77–108. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hintz, Diane M. 2006. Stress in South Conchucos Quechua: a phonetic and phonological study. International Journal of American Linguistics 72(4): 477–521. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hopper, Paul J. 1991. On some principles of grammaticization. In Approaches to Grammaticalization, Vol. 1: Focus on Theoretical and Methodological Issues, Elizabeth C. Traugott & Bernd Heine (eds), 17–36. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hovdhaugen, Even. 2000. A loanword from Mapudungun in Mochica? In Essays in Honor of Arne Skjølsvold 75 Years, Paul Wallin & Helen Martinsson-Wallin (eds), 133–138. Oslo: The Kon-Tiki Museum, Institute for Pacific Archaeology and Cultural History.Google Scholar
. 2004. Mochica. Austin: University of Texas.Google Scholar
Humboldt, Wilhelm v. 1905 [1820–1821]. Prüfung der Untersuchungen über die Ureinwohner Hispaniens vermittelst der Vaskischen Sprache. In Wilhelm von Humboldts Werke, Vol. 4, Albert Leitzmann (ed), 57–232. Berlin: B. Behr’s Verlag.Google Scholar
Humboldt, Wilhelm. v. 1920 [1802–1805]. Die Vasken, oder Bemerkungen auf einer Reise durch Biscaya und das französische Basquenland im Frühling des Jahrs 1801 nebst Untersuchungen über die Vaskische Sprache und Nation, und einer kurzen Darstellung ihrer Grammatik und ihres Wörtervorraths. In Wilhelm von Humboldts Werke, Vol. 13, Albert Leitzmann (ed), 1–196. Berlin: B. Behr’s Verlag.Google Scholar
Irvine, Judith T. & Gal, Susan. 2000. Language ideology and linguistic differentiation. In Regimes of Language: Ideologies, Polities, and Identities, Paul V. Kroskrity (ed), 35–84. Santa Fe/Oxford: School of American Research Press & James Currey.Google Scholar
Itier, César. 2013. Las bases geográficas de la lengua vehicular del imperio inca. Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Études Andines 42(2): 237–260. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jolkesky, Marcelo P. de V. 2016. Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas. PhD dissertation, Universidade de Brasília. DOI logo
Kaufman, Terrence S. 1964. Materiales lingüísticos para el estudio de las relaciones internas y externas de la familia de idiomas mayanos. In Desarrollo cultural de los mayas, Evon Z. Vogt & Alberto R. Lhuillier (eds), 81–136. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.Google Scholar
Kaulicke, Peter. 2020. Early social complexity in northern Peru and its Amazonian connections. In Rethinking the Andes-Amazonia Divide: A Cross-Disciplinary Exploration, Adrian J. Pearce, David G. Beresford-Jones, & Paul Heggarty (eds), 103–114. London: UCL Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Larco, Rafael. 1945. Los Mochicas (pre-chimu de Uhle y early chimu de Kroeber). Buenos Aires: Sociedad Geográfica Americana.Google Scholar
Lehmann, Walter. 1931. Mochica-Sprache von Eten bei Chiclayo. Aufgenommen von Dr. Walter Lehmann in Eten 1929. Dahlem-Berlin April 1931. Zusammengestellt. Berlin: Ibero-American Institute.Google Scholar
Makowski, Krzysztof. 1994. Los señores de Loma Negra. In Vicús, 82–141. Lima: Banco de Crédito del Perú.Google Scholar
Mannheim, Bruce. 2018. Three axes of variability in Quechua: Regional diversification, contact with other indigenous languages, and social enregisterment. In The Andean World, Linda J. Seligmann & Kathleen S. Fine-Dare (eds), 507–523. London/New York: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Meillet, Antoine. 1925. La méthode comparative en linguistique historique. Paris: Champion.Google Scholar
Middendorf, Ernst W. 1892. Das Muchik oder die Chimu-Sprache, mit einer Einleitung über die Culturvölker, die gleichzeitig mit den Inkas und Aimaràs in Südamerika lebten, und einem Anhang über die Chibcha-Sprache. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus.Google Scholar
Nichols, Johanna. 2012. Selection for m : T pronominals in Eurasia. In Copies versus Cognates in Bound Morphology, Lars Johanson & Martine Robbeets (eds), 47–69. Leiden: Brill. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nichols, Johanna & Peterson, David A. 2013. N-M pronouns. In The World Atlas of Language Structures Online (WALS), Matthew Dryer & Martin Haspelmath (eds). Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. <[URL]>
Park, Marinel, Weber, Nancy, & Cenepo, Victor S. 1976. Diccionario quechua: San Martín. Lima: Ministerio de Educación/Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.Google Scholar
Pozorski, Shelia & Pozorski, Thomas. 2008. Early cultural complexity on the coast of Peru. In Handbook of South American Archaeology, Helaine Silverman & William H. Isbell (eds), 607–631. Heidelberg: Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Quilter, Jeffrey. 2010. Moche: Archaeology, ethnicity, identity. Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Études Andines, 39(2): 225–241. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2011. The Moche of Ancient Peru: Media and Messages. Harvard: Peabody Museum Press, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Quilter, Jeffrey, Zender, Marc, Spalding, Karen, Franco, Régulo, Gálvez, César, & Castañeda, Juan. 2010. Traces of a lost language and number system discovered on the North Coast of Peru. American Anthropologist 112(3): 357–369. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ramírez, Susan A. 2013. Alternative ways of knowing: Place names and personal titles as indigenous voice, an Andean optic. Perspectivas Latinoamericanas 10: 1–24.Google Scholar
Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, María. 1985. Patronyms with the consonant F in the Guarangas of Cajamarca. In Andean Ecology and Civilization: An Interdisciplinary Perspective on Andean Ecological Complementarity, Shozo Masuda, Izumi Shimada, & Craig Morris (eds), 401–421. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.Google Scholar
Rostworowski, María. 1992. Etnias forasteras en la visita toledana a Cajamarca. In Las visitas a Cajamarca, 1571–72/1578, Vol. 1: Documentos, María Rostworowski & Pilar Remy (eds), 9–36. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.Google Scholar
Salas, José A. 2002. Diccionario mochica–castellano. Lima: Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Escuela Profesional de Turismo y Hotelería.Google Scholar
2010. La lengua pescadora. Boletín de la Academía Peruana de la Lengua 50: 83–128. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2012. Etimologías mochicas. Lima: Academia Peruana de la Lengua.Google Scholar
2013. Etapas del proceso de traducción colonial en el Perú, desde la óptica del mochica. In La traducción a través de los tiempos, espacios y disciplinas, Silke Jansen & Martina Schrader-Kriffki (eds), 77–123. Berlin: Frank & Timme.Google Scholar
Saussure, Ferdinand de. 1971 [1916]. Cours de linguistique générale. Paris: France.Google Scholar
Schumacher de Peña, Gertrud. 1991. El Vocabulario mochica de Walter Lehmann (1929) comparado con otras fuentes léxicas. Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Instituto de Investigación de Lingüística Aplicada.Google Scholar
Seifart, Frank & Hammarström, Harald. 2017. Language isolates in South America. In Language Isolates [Routledge Language Family Series], Lyle Campbell (ed), 260–286. London/New York: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Shimada, Izumi. 1999. The evolution of Andean diversity: Regional formations (500 B.C.E.–C.E. 600). In The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol. 3, part 1, Frank Salomon & Stuart B. Schwartz (eds), 350–517. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2000. The late prehispanic coastal states. In The Inca World: The Development of Pre-Columbian Peru, A.D. 1000–1534, 2nd edn., Laura Minelli (ed), 49–110. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles. 2001. The origin of state societies in South America. Annual Review of Anthropology 30: 41–64. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Stark, Louisa R. 1968. Mayan affinities with Yunga of Peru. PhD dissertation, New York University.
1972. Maya-Yunga-Chipayan: a new linguistic alignment. International Journal of American Linguistics 38(2): 119–135. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Taylor, Gerald. 2000. Estudios lingüísticos sobre Chachapoyas. Lima: Institut Français d’Études Andines/Fondo Editorial de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos.Google Scholar
Thomason, Sarah G. & Kaufman, Terrence. 1988. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Thurston, William R. 1989. How exoteric languages build a lexicon: Esoterogeny in West New Britain. In VICAL 1: Oceanic Languages. Papers from the Fifth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, Ray Harlow & Robin Hooper (eds), 555–579. Auckland: Linguistic Society of New Zealand. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Topic, John R. 2003. From stewards to bureaucrats: architecture and information flow at Chan Chan, Peru. Latin American Antiquity 14(3): 243–274. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Torero, Alfredo. 1986. Deslindes lingüísticos en la costa norte peruana. Revista Andina 4(2): 523–548.Google Scholar
. 1989. Areas toponímicas e idiomas en la sierra norte peruana: un trabajo de recuperación lingüística. Revista Andina 7(1): 217–257.Google Scholar
. 1993. Lenguas del nororiente peruano: la hoya de Jaén en el siglo XVI. Revista Andina 11(2): 447–472.Google Scholar
. 2002. Idiomas de los Andes. Lingüística e historia. Lima: Institut Français d’Études Andines/Editorial Horizonte.Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. 2010. Contact and sociolinguistic typology. In The Handbook of Language Contact, Raymond Hickey (ed), 299–319. Oxford: Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2011. Sociolinguistic Typology: Social Determinants of Linguistic Complexity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ulloa, Juan de. 1965 [1586]. Relación de la provincia de los Collaguas para la descripción de las yndias que Su Magestad manda hacer. In Relaciones geográficas de Indias, Vol. 2: Peru, Marcos Jiménez de la Espada (ed), 326–333. Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Españoles.Google Scholar
Urban, Matthias. 2015a. El vocabulario sechurano de Richard Spruce. Lexis 39(2): 395–413. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2015b. The Massa connection: An onomastic link between the Peruvian North and Far North in a multidisciplinary perspective. Indiana 32: 179–203. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2017. ¿Multilingüismo prehispánico en la costa norte del Perú? Una exploración de las evidencias. Umbral 3(3): 67–88.Google Scholar
. 2018a. Maritime loanwords in languages of Pacific Meso- and South America? An explorative study. In New Perspectives on the Peopling of the Americas, Katherina Harvati, Gerhard Jäger, & Hugo Reyes-Centeno (eds), 27–60. Tübingen: Kerns.Google Scholar
. 2018b. Sprachlandschaften: Über die Rolle von Sprache in der Beziehung zwischen Mensch und Umwelt. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann.Google Scholar
. 2019a. Is there a Central Andean linguistic area? A view from the perspective of the “minor” languages. Journal of Language Contact 12(2): 271–304. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2019b. Lost Languages of the Peruvian North Coast. Berlin: Gebr. Mann/Ibero-American Institute.Google Scholar
. 2021a. The foreign contribution to the lexicon of Northern Peruvian Quechua varieties: An exploratory study. Language Dynamics and Change 11(1): 77–129. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2021b. The geography and development of language isolates. Royal Society Open Science 8(4): 202–232. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2021c. Mochica pronouns: Their internal reconstruction and their significance for worldwide patterns of paradigmatic resemblances in pronominal shapes. International Journal of American Linguistics 87(2): 279–296. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2021d. Cholón and the linguistic prehistory of northern Peru: triangulating toponymy, substrate lexis, and areal typology. Linguistic Discovery 17(1): 63–83. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2021e. Terminología marítima en el Lexicon, o Vocabulario de la lengua general del Perú de Domingo de Santo Tomás (1560) y posibles implicaciones para la historia de la familia lingüística quechua. Boletín de la Academia Peruana de la Lengua 70: 13–61. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2021f. Una nueva lista de palabras de la lengua mochica del siglo XIX. Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Études Andines 50(2): 117–146. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. To appear a. Mochica. In The Oxford Guide to the Languages of the Central Andes, Matthias Urban (ed). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
. To appear b. Language ecologies and dynamics in the ancient Central Andes. In The Oxford Guide to the Languages of the Central Andes, Matthias Urban (ed). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Urban, Matthias & Eloranta, Rita. 2017. Ñaimlap, the birds, and the sea: a view at the legend through the lens of the Mochica language. Names 65(3): 154–166. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Urban, Matthias, Reyes-Centeno, Hugo, Bellamy, Kate, & Pache, Matthias. 2019. The areal typology of western Middle and South America: Towards a comprehensive view. Linguistics 52(6): 1403–1463. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Urban, Matthias & Barbieri, Chiara. 2020. North and South in the ancient Central Andes: Contextualizing the archaeological record with evidence from linguistics and molecular anthropology. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 60: 101–233. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Urton, Gary. 2015. Inka administration in Tawantinsuyu by means of knotted cords. In The Cambridge World Prehistory, Vol. 3: Early Cities in Comparative Perspective 400 BCE–1200 CE, Norman Yoffee (ed), 181–206. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Van de Kerke, Simon & Muysken, Pieter. 2014. The Andean matrix. In The Native Languages of South America: Origins, Development, Typology, Loretta O’Connor & Pieter Muysken (eds), 126–151. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Van Gijn, Rik & Muysken, Pieter. 2020. Highland-lowland relations: A linguistic view. In Rethinking the Andes-Amazonia Divide: A Cross-Disciplinary Exploration, Adrian J. Pearce, David G. Beresford-Jones, & Paul Heggarty (eds), 178–210. London: UCL Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wipio, Gerardo, Antunce, Alejandro p., & Jakway, Martha A. 1996. Diccionario Aguaruna–Castellano, Castellano–Aguaruna. Lima: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.Google Scholar
Zevallos, Jorge. 1995. El área geográfico-cultural de la prehistoria de Chachapoyas: una nueva postulación. Gaceta Arqueológica Andina 24: 13–23.Google Scholar