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Investigating Language Isolates: Typological and diachronic perspectives
Edited by Iker Salaberri, Dorota Krajewska, Ekaitz Santazilia and Eneko Zuloaga
[Typological Studies in Language 135] 2025
► pp. 270–303

California isolates

Language contact and genetic classification

| California State University, San Bernardino
California is known for its linguistic diversity and the impact of longstanding language contact on genetic classification (Mithun 2010, 2012, 2017; Golla 2011; Haynie 2012). Although two hypothetical ancient linguistic groupings were proposed (Hokan and Penutian), several languages are still considered isolates. This chapter examines phoneme inventories, lexical affixing patterns, verbal number (pluractionality), and switch-reference in California isolates and non-isolates to identify a potential link between linguistic features and isolate status. Comparison of neighboring languages reveals that these linguistic features spread across genetic boundaries in geographically contiguous areas and should therefore be attributed to language contact rather than to isolate status. The comparison further illustrates that isolates are affected by language contact in the same way as non-isolates.
Keywords: language contact, genetic classification, phoneme inventory, lexical affixing, pluractionality
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.California genetic classifications and language isolates and non‑isolates
    • 2.1Hokan and Penutian
    • 2.2California isolates vs. unclassified languages vs. dialects
      • 2.2.1Chimariko
      • 2.2.2Esselen (Huelel)
      • 2.2.3Karuk
      • 2.2.4Salinan
      • 2.2.5Washo
      • 2.2.6Yana
      • 2.2.7Achumawi and Atsugewi
      • 2.2.8Klamath-Modoc
      • 2.2.9Yokuts
      • 2.2.10Summary
    • 2.3California non-isolates
      • 2.3.1Shastan
      • 2.3.2Chumashan
      • 2.3.3Wintuan
      • 2.3.4Maiduan
      • 2.3.5Mutsun
      • 2.3.6Yurok
      • 2.3.7Hupa
  • 3.Geographic subareas
  • 4.Linguistic features and language contact
    • 4.1Consonant inventories and phonological features
      • 4.1.1Consonant inventories and features in Northwestern California
      • 4.1.2Consonant inventories and features in Northeastern California
      • 4.1.3Consonant inventories and features in Coast and Central Valley California
      • 4.1.4Consonant inventories and features in Inland Central California
      • 4.1.5Summary
    • 4.2Grammatical features
      • 4.2.1Lexical affixing pattern
      • 4.2.2Pluractionality
      • 4.2.3Switch-reference
      • 4.2.4Geographical distribution of grammatical patterns
  • 5.Conclusions
  • Notes
  • References
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