Part of
Writing(s) at the Crossroads: The process–product interfaceEdited by Georgeta Cislaru
[Not in series 194] 2015
► pp. 277–302
Edited by Georgeta Cislaru
[Not in series 194] 2015
► pp. 277–302
Analyzing writing process data
A linguistic perspective
Mariëlle Leijten | University of Antwerp & Research Foundation – Flanders (FWO), University of Antwerp
Eric Van Horenbeeck | University of Antwerp & Research Foundation – Flanders (FWO), University of Antwerp
In this paper we briefly introduce keystroke logging as a research method in writing research, focusing more explicitly on the recently developed linguistic analysis technique. In a case study of two elderly people (healthy versus demented), we illustrate some aspects of this linguistic approach. This analysis aggregates event-based data from the character level to the word level, while taking into account all the revisions that occurred during the composing process. The linguistic process analysis complements the logged process information with results from a part-of-speech tagger, a lemmatizer, a chunker, a syllabifier, and also adds word frequencies. The enriched word level information – together with action time and pause time at the word level – opens up new perspectives in the analysis of process dynamics, once more establishing a closer link between process and product analysis. We thus test the complementary diagnostic accuracy for Alzheimer’s disease, mainly focusing on cognitive and linguistic aspects that characterize the process of written language production.
Available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives (CC BY-NC-ND) 4.0 license.
For any use beyond this license, please contact the publisher at [email protected].
References
Baaijen, Veerle M., David Galbraith, and Kees de Glopper
2012 “Keystroke Analysis Reflections on Procedures and Measures.” Written Communication 29(3): 246–277. 
2014 “Effects of writing beliefs and planning on writing performance.” Learning and Instruction 33(0): 81–91.
Bazerman, C
ed. 2008 Handbook of Research on Writing: History, Society, School, Individual, Text. New York and London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
Bazerman, Charles, Robert Krut, Karen Lunsford, Susan McLeod, Suzie Null, Paul Rogers, and Amanda Stansell
2010 Traditions of Writing Research. New York and London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
Berninger, Virginia
2012 Past, Present, and Future Contributions of Cognitive Writing Research to Cognitive Psychology. New York and London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
Caporossi, Gilles, and Christophe Leblay
2011 “Online writing data representation: a graph theory approach.” Advances in Intelligent Data Analysis X:80–89.
Carl, Michael
2012 “Translog-II: a Program for Recording User Activity Data for Empirical Reading and Writing Research.” Paper read at LREC.
Doherty, Stephen, and Sharon O’Brien
2014 “Assessing the Usability of Raw Machine Translated Output: A User-Centered Study Using Eye Tracking.” International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction 30(1): 40–51.
Ehrensberger-Dow, Maureen, and Daniel Perrin
2009 “Capturing translation processes: a multi-method approach.” Across Languages and Cultures 20(2): 275–288.
Folstein, Marshall, Susan E. Folstein, and PR McHugh
1975 “Mini-mental state. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician.” Journal of Psychiatric Research 12: 189–198.
Flower, Linda, and John R. Hayes
1981 “A cognitive process theory of writing.” College Composition and Communication 32: 365–387.
Goodglass, Harold, Edith Kaplan, and Barbara Barresi
1983 Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination (BDAE). Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.
Gunawardhane, Suranga DW, Pasan M De Silva, Dayan SB Kulathunga, and Shiromi MKD Arunatileka
2013 “Non invasive human stress detection using key stroke dynamics and pattern variations.” Paper read at Advances in ICT for Emerging Regions (ICTer), 2013 International Conference on.
Hayes, John R
1996 “A new framework for understanding cognition and affect in writing.” In The science of Writing: Theories, Methods, Individual Differences, and Applications, ed. by C.Michael Levy, and Sarah E. Ransdell, 1–27. Mahwah: New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
2012a “Modeling and remodeling writing.” Written Communication 29(3): 369–388.
2012b “My Past and Present as Writing Researcher and Thoughts About the Future of Writing Research.” In Past, Present, and Future Contributions of Cognitive Writing Research to Cognitive Psychology, ed. by Virginia Berninger, 3–26. New York: Taylor and Francis Group, Psychology Press.
Jakobsen, Arnt. L
2006 “Translog: Research methods in translation.” In Computer Keystroke Logging and Writing: Methods and Applications, ed. by Kirk P.H. Sullivan, and Eva Lindgren, 95–105. Oxford: Elsevier.
Jakobsen, Arnt L
2011 “Tracking translators’ keystrokes and eye movements with Translog.” Methods and Strategies of Process Research: Integrative Approaches in Translation Studies 94: 37.
Johansson, Victoria, Åsa Wengelin, Johan Frid, and Roger Johansson
2014 “ScriptLog 2013 state of the art.” In Training school on keystroke logging. University of Antwerp, Belgium.
Jurafsky, Daniel S., and James H. Martin
2009 Speech and Language Processing: An Introduction to Natural Language Processing, Computational Linguistics, and Speech Recognition. Vol. 3. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc.
Kellogg, Ronald T
2008 “Training writing skills: A cognitive developmental perspective.” Journal of Writing Research 1(1): 1–26.
Leblay, Christophe, and Gilles Caporossi
2014 Temps de l’écriture: Enregistrements et représentations. Vol. 12: Academia/L’Harmattan.
Leijten, Mariëlle, Sven De Maeyer, and Luuk Van Waes
2011 “Coordinating sentence composition with error correction: A multilevel analysis.” Journal of Writing Research 2(3): 331–363.
Leijten, Mariëlle, Lieve Macken, Veronique Hoste, Eric Van Horenbeeck, and Luuk Van Waes
2012 “From character to word level: Enabling the linguistic analyses of Inputlog process data.” In European Association for Computational Linguistics, EACL – Computational Linguistics and Writing (CL&W 2012): Linguistic and Cognitive Aspects of Document Creation and Document Engineering, ed. by Michael Piotrowski, Cerstin Mahlow, and Robert Dale. Avignon. [URL].
Leijten, Mariëlle, and Luuk Van Waes
2012 “Inputlog 4.0: Keystroke Logging in Writing Research.” In Learning to Write Effectively: Current Trends in European Research, ed. by Mark Torrance, Denis Alamargot, Montserrat Castelló, Franck Ganier, Otto Kruse, Anne Mangen, Liliana Tolchinsky, and Luuk Van Waes, 363–366. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
2013 “Keystroke logging in writing research: Using Inputlog to analyze and visualize writing processes.” Written Communication 30(3): 358–392.
2014 Manual Inputlog 6.0. Antwerp: University of Antwerp.
Leijten, Mariëlle, Luuk Van Waes, Karen Schriver, and John R. Hayes
2014 “Writing in the workplace: Constructing documents using multiple digital sources.” Journal of Writing Research 5(3): 285–336.
Lindgren, Eva, Mariëlle Leijten, and Luuk Van Waes
MacArthur, Charles A., Steve Graham, and Jill Fitzgerald
(Eds.) 2008 Handbook of Writing Research. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Macgilchrist, Felicitas, and Tom Van Hout
2011 “Ethnographic discourse analysis and social science.” Paper read at Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research.
Maggio, Severine, Bernard Lété, Florence Chenu, Harriet Jisa, and Michel Fayol
2012 “Tracking the mind during writing: Immediacy, delayed, and anticipatory effects on pauses and writing rate.” Reading and Writing no. 25 (9): 2131–2151.
Manning, Christoper, D., and Hinrich Schütze
1999 Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
McKhann Guy, David Drachman, Marshall Folstein, et al.
1984 “Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease.” Report of the NINCDSADRDA work group under the auspices of the Department of Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 34: 939–944.
Mesulam, M-Marsel, Murray Grossman, Argye Hillis, Andrew Kertesz, and Sandra Weintraub
2003 “The core and halo of primary progressive aphasia and semantic dementia.” Annals of Neurology 54(5): 11–14.
Petersen, Ronald C
2004 “Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity.” Journal of Internal Medicine 256(3): 183–194.
Risku, Hanna, Florian Windhager, and Matthias Apfelthaler
2013 “A dynamic network model of translatorial cognition and action.” Translation Spaces 2(1): 151–182.
Robert, Isabelle S., and Luuk Van Waes
2014 “Selecting a translation revision procedure: do common sense and statistics agree?” Perspectives: 1–18.
Schilperoord, Joost
1996 It’s about time. Temporal aspects of cognitive processes in text production. Amsterdam/ Atlanta: Rodopi.
Severinson Eklundh, Kerstin, and Py Kollberg
2002 “Studying writers’ revision patterns with S-notation analysis.” In Contemporary tools and techniques for studying writing, ed. by Thierry Olive, and C. Michael Levy, 89–104. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Spelman Miller, Kristyan, Eva Lindgren, and Kirk P.H. Sullivan
2008 “The psycholinguistic dimension in second language writing: Opportunities for research and pedagogy using computer keystroke logging.” TESOL Quarterly 42(3): 433–454.
Sperling, Reisa A., Paul S. Aisen, Laurel A. Beckett, David A. Bennett, Susanne Craft, et al.
2011 “Toward defining the preclinical stages of Alzheimer’s disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease.” Alzheimers Dement 7: 280–292.
Sullivan, Kirk P.H., and Eva Lindgren
2006 Computer Key-Stroke Logging and Writing. Edited by G. Rijlaarsdam, Studies in Writing. Oxford: Elsevier Science.
Van Eynde, Frank, Jakub Zavrel, and Walter Daelemans
2000 “Part of speech tagging and lemmatisation for the Spoken Dutch Corpus.” In Proceeding of the Second International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, ed. by M. Gavrilidou et al., 1427–1433. Athens.
Van Horenbeeck, Eric, Tom Pauwaert, L. Van Waes, and M. Leijten
2012 S-notation: S-notation markup rules (Technical Description). Antwerp: University of Antwerp.
Van Waes, Luuk, and Mariëlle Leijten
2011 “Observing and analysing digital writing processes with Inputlog.” In Antwerp Summer School on Writing Process Research: Keystroke logging and Eyetracking. Antwerp.
2013 “Vlot schrijven-Een multidimensioneel perspectief op ‘writing fluency’.” Tijdschrift voor taalbeheersing 35(2): 160–182.
2014 Inputlog 6.0: Pause and fluency analysis.” In Keystroke logging training school. Antwerp.
Van Waes, Luuk, Mariëlle Leijten, and Aline Remael
2013 “Live subtitling with speech recognition. Causes and consequences of text reduction.” Across Languages and Cultures 14(1): 15–46.
Van Waes, Luuk, Mariëlle Leijten, Åsa Wengelin, and Eva Lindgren
2012 “Logging tools to study digital writing processes.” In Past, Present, and Future Contributions of Cognitive Writing Research to Cognitive Psychology, ed. by Virginia Wise Berninger, 507–533. New York/Sussex: Taylor & Francis.
Van Waes, Luuk, and Peter Jan Schellens
2003 “Writing profiles: The effect of the writing mode on pausing and revision patterns of experienced writers.” Journal of Pragmatics 35(6): 829–853.
Visch-Brink, Evy, Dorien Vandenborre, Hyo Jung De Smet, and Peter Mariën
2014 The Comprehensive Aphasia Test-NL, Pearson. Amsterdam.
Wengelin, Åsa
2006 “Examining pauses in writing: Theories, methods and empirical data”. In Computer Keystroke Logging and Writing: Methods and Applications, ed. by Kirk P.H. Sullivan, and Eva Lindgren, 107–130. Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
Wengelin, Åsa, Mark Torrance, Kenneth Holmqvist, Sol Simpson, David Galbraith, Victoria Johansson, and Roger Johansson
2009 “Combined eye-tracking and keystroke-logging methods for studying cognitive processes in text production.” Behavior Research Methods 41(2): 337–351.
Wininger, Michael
2014 “Measuring the evolution of a revised document.” Journal of Writing. Research 6(1): 1–28.
Yi, Hyon-Ah, Peachie Moore, and Murray Grossman
2007 “Reversal of the Concreteness Effect for Verbs in Patients with Semantic Dementia.” Neuropsychology 21(9): 9–19.
Cited by
Cited by 10 other publications
Allen, Laura K., Caitlin Mills, Matthew E. Jacovina, Scott Crossley, Sidney D'Mello & Danielle S. McNamara
2016. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Learning Analytics & Knowledge, ► pp. 114 ff. 
Chau, Luan Tuyen, Marielle Leijten, Sarah Bernolet & Lieve Vangehuchten
2022. Envisioning multilingualism in source-based writing in L1, L2, and L3: The relation between source use and text quality. Frontiers in Psychology 13
Guggenbichler, Elisa, Kathrin Eberharter & Benjamin Kremmel
2023. Chapter 12. Investigating cognitive processes during writing tests. In Research Methods in the Study of L2 Writing Processes [Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 5], ► pp. 247 ff.
Leijten, Mariëlle, Luuk Van Waes, Iris Schrijver, Sarah Bernolet & Lieve Vangehuchten
2019. MAPPING MASTER’S STUDENTS’ USE OF EXTERNAL SOURCES IN SOURCE-BASED WRITING IN L1 AND L2. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 41:3 ► pp. 555 ff.
Mahlow, Cerstin, Malgorzata Anna Ulasik & Don Tuggener
2024. Extraction of transforming sequences and sentence histories from writing process data: a first step towards linguistic modeling of writing. Reading and Writing 37:2 ► pp. 443 ff.
Meulemans, Catherine, Mariëlle Leijten & Sven De Maeyer
2023. The influence of age and verb transitivity on written sentence production. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics 37:10 ► pp. 958 ff.
Meulemans, Catherine, Mariëlle Leijten, Luuk Van Waes, Sebastiaan Engelborghs & Sven De Maeyer
2022. Cognitive Writing Process Characteristics in Alzheimer’s Disease. Frontiers in Psychology 13
Schneier, Joel
2021. Digital Articulation: Examining Text-Based Linguistic Performances in Mobile Communication Through Keystroke-Logging Analysis. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence 3
Schneier, Joel
2023. Modeling Mobile Writing: Applying Sociocognitive Models of Writing to Mobile Contexts. Written Communication 40:1 ► pp. 3 ff.
[no author supplied]
2018. Références bibliographiques. In Le processus de textualisation [Champs linguistiques, ], ► pp. 237 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 20 april 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.