Cover not available
Part of
Creole Studies – Phylogenetic Approaches
Edited by Peter Bakker, Finn Borchsenius, Carsten Levisen and Eeva M. Sippola
[Not in series 211] 2017
► pp. 79–101

Chapter 5
Creole typology I

Comparative overview of creole languages

| Aarhus University
| Aarhus University
This chapter provides an overview of structural properties of creole languages based on widely different languages and spoken in a broad geographic range. We discuss phonology, morphology, syntax and lexicon. Phonologically, creoles tend to have average properties. Creoles are generally not endowed with a rich morphological apparatus, for instance contextual inflection is largely absent, but compounding, reduplication and some derivational processes are common. Syntactically, creoles are quite diverse in their nominal structures. Preverbal markers are common in the verb phrase. A relatively fixed constituent order is found in the basic transitive sentence, mostly SVO. These creole properties are compared with a sample of non-creole languages. The results suggest that lexically, creoles seem to be less mixed than European languages.
Article outline
  • 5.1Introduction
  • 5.2Phonology
    • 5.2.1Creole segmental inventories
    • 5.2.2Creole phonotactics
    • 5.2.3Creole suprasegmentals
    • 5.2.4Summary of Creole phonology
  • 5.3Creole morphology
    • 5.3.1Inflectional morphology
    • 5.3.2Compounding and derivational morphology, reduplication, compounding, suppletion
    • 5.3.3Creole morphology: summary
  • 5.4Creole constituent order
    • 5.4.1Sentential constituent order
    • 5.4.2Verb phrase word order
    • 5.4.3Serial verbs
    • 5.4.4Ditransitive constructions
    • 5.4.5Noun phrase word order
    • 5.4.6Attributive possession
    • 5.4.7Predicative possession
    • 5.4.8Summary: Creole constituent order
  • 5.5The creole lexicon
    • 5.5.1The lexicon: Mixedness
    • 5.5.2The lexicon: Quantity of roots and words
    • 5.5.3Expansion of the lexicon
    • 5.5.4Substrate
  • 5.6Conclusions
  • References
Available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives (CC BY-NC-ND) 4.0 license.

For any use beyond this license, please contact the publisher at rights@benjamins.nl.

Published online: 31 May 2017
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/z.211.05bak
References
Aboh, E. & Smith, N. S. H.
2015 Non-iconic reduplications in Eastern Gbe and Surinam. In Surviving the Middle Passage. The West Africa-Surinam Sprachbund, P. C. Muysken & N. S. H. Smith (eds), 241–260. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Adamson, L. & Smith, N. S. H.
2003 Productive derivational predicate reduplication in Sranan. In Kouwenberg (ed.), 83–92.Google Scholar
Adelaar, K. A.
1991 Some notes on the origin of Sri Lankan Malay. In Papers in Austronesian Linguistics, Vol. I, H. Steinhauer (ed.), 23–37. Canberra: The Australian National University.Google Scholar
Arends, J.
1989 Syntactic Developments in Sranan: Creolization as a Gradual Process. PhD dissertation, Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen.Google Scholar
Baker, P.
1984 Agglutinated French articles in creole French: Their evolutionary significance. Te Reo 27: 89–129.Google Scholar
1994 Creativity in creole genesis. In Creolization and Language Change, D. Adone & I. Plag (eds), 65–84. Tübingen: Niemeyer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2003 Reduplication in Mauritian creole. In Kouwenberg (ed.), 211–218.Google Scholar
2012a African words and calques in Mauritian creole. In Bartens & Baker (eds), 81–116.Google Scholar
2012b The African vocabulary of Haitian and the lesser Antilles French creoles. In Bartens & Baker (eds), 117–133.Google Scholar
Baker, P. & Corne, C.
1986 Universals, substrata and the Indian Ocean Creoles. In Muysken & Smith (eds), 163–183. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Baker, P. & Hookoomsingh, V. Y.
1987 Diksyoner Kreol Morisyen/Dictionary of Mauritian Creole/ Dictionnaire du créole Mauricien. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
Bakker, P.
2000 Rapid language change: Creolization, intertwining, convergence. In Time Depth in Historical Linguistics, C. Renfrew, A. McMahon & R. L. Trask (eds), 585–620. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.Google Scholar
2003a Pidgin inflectional morphology and its implications for creole morphology. In Yearbook of Morphology 2002, G. E. Booij & J. van Marle (eds), 3–33. Dordrecht: Kluwer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2003b The absence of reduplication in pidgins. In Kouwenberg (ed.), 37–46.Google Scholar
2006 The Sri Lanka Sprachbund: The newcomers Portuguese and Malay. In Linguistic Areas. Convergence in Historical and Typological Perspective, Y. Matras, A. McMahon & N. Vincent (eds), 135–159. Houndmills: Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar
2008 The development of tense, mood and aspect in creole languages and the typology of affix order. In Interdependence of Diachronic and Synchronic Analyses [Studies in Language Companion Series 134], F. Josephson & I. Söhrman (eds), 43–59. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2014 Creoles and typology. Problems of sampling and definition. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 29(2): 437–455. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2015 Creole languages have no… – but they do have…. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 30(1): 167–176. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bakker, P. & Parkvall, M.
2005 Reduplication in pidgins and creoles. In Studies on Reduplication, B. Hurch (ed.), 511–532. Berlin: De Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bakker, P., Post M. & van der Voort H.
1994 TMA Particles and Auxiliaries. In Pidgins and Creoles. An Introduction [Creole Language Library 15], J. Arends, P. Muysken & N. S. H. Smith (eds), 247–258. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Baptista, M.
2011 On the development of verbal and nominal morphology in four lusophone creoles. Canadian Journal of Linguistics/Revue Canadienne de Linguistique 56(1): 7–35. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Baptista, M. & Guéron, J.
(eds) 2007 Noun Phrases in Creole Languages: A Multi-Faceted Approach [Creole Language Library 31]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bartens, A. & Baker, P.
(eds) 2012 Black Through White: African Words and Calques which Survived Slavery in Creoles and Transplanted European Languages. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
Bickerton, D.
1981 Roots of Language. Ann Arbor MI: Karoma.Google Scholar
1984 The Language Bioprogram Hypothesis. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7: 173–188. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bloomfield, L.
1933 Language. New York NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
Booij, G. E.
1996 Inherent versus contextual inflection and the split morphology hypothesis. In Yearbook of Morphology 1995, G. E. Booij & J. van Marle (eds), 1–16. Dordrecht: Kluwer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Brousseau, A.-M.
2011 Mesure de la productivité morphologique des créoles: Au-delà des méthodes quantitatives. Canadian Journal of Linguistics/Revue Canadienne de Linguistique 56(1): 61–86. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bybee, J. L.
1985 Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form [Typological Studies in Language 9]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chien, Y.
2015 The lexical system of Yilan creole. In New Advances in Formosan Linguistics, E. Zeitoun, S. F. Teng & J. J. Wu (eds), 513–532. Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics.Google Scholar
Chinuk Wawa Dictionary Project
2012 Chinuk Wawa kakwa nsayka ulman-tilixam ɬaska munk-kəmtəks nsayka / As our Elders Teach us to Speak it. Grand Ronde OR: Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon.Google Scholar
Clements, J. C.
1991 Deletion as an Indicator of SVO -> SOV Shift. Language Variation and Change 2: 103–133. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1996 The Genesis of a Language. The Formation and Development of Korlai Portuguese [Creole Language Library 16]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2001 Word order shift and natural L2 acquisition in a Portuguese creole. In Romance Syntax, Semantics and L2 Acquisition [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 217], C. Wiltshire & J. Camps (eds), 73–87. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2007 Korlai (Creole Portuguese). In Comparative Creole Syntax, J. Holm & P. Patrick (eds), 153–173. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
2013 Korlai structure dataset. In Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures Online, S. M. Michaelis, P. Maurer, M. Haspelmath, & M. Huber (eds). Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. [URL] (24 June 2015).
Comrie, B.
2011 Creoles and language typology. In Creoles, their Substrates and Language Typology [Typological Studies in Language 95], C. Lefebvre (ed.), 599–611. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
DeGraff, M.
2001 Morphology in creole genesis: Linguistics and ideology. In Ken Hale: A Life in Language, M. Kenstowicz (ed.), 53–122. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press.Google Scholar
Dryer, M. S.
2013a Order of subject, object and verb. In Dryer & Haspelmath (eds). [URL] (27 May 2014).
2013b Prefixing vs. suffixing in inflectional morphology. In Dryer & Haspelmath (eds). [URL] (1 November 2014).
Dryer, M. S. & Haspelmath, M.
(eds) 2013 The World Atlas of Linguistic Language Structures Online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.Google Scholar
Dutton, T. E.
1996 Hiri Motu. In Contact Languages. A Wider Perspective [Creole Language Library 17], S. G. Thomason (ed), 9–41. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Farquharson, J. T.
2007 Creole morphology revisited. In Deconstructing Creole [Typological Studies in Lanuage 73], U. Ansaldo, S. Matthews, & L. Lim (eds), 21–37. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Farquharson, J. & Baker, P.
2012 African morphemes in Jamaican creole. In Bartens & Baker (eds), 155–168.Google Scholar
Givón, T.
1982 Tense- aspect-modality: The Creole prototype and beyond. In Tense – Aspect: Between Semantics and Pragmatics [Typological Studies in Language 1], P. J. Hopper (ed.), 115–163. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Good, J.
2004 Tone and accent in Saramaccan: Charting a deep split in the phonology of a language. Lingua 114: 575–619. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2013 Typologizing grammatical complexities. Why creoles may be paradigmatically simple but syntagmatically average. In Creole Languages and Linguistic Typology [Benjamins Current Topics 57], P. Bhatt & T. Veenstra (eds), 47–93. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Also appeared in 2001. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 27: 1–47. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gooden, S.
2003 Reduplication in Jamaican creole: Semantic functions and prosodic constraints. In Kouwenberg (ed.), 93–103.Google Scholar
Goddard, C.
2011 Semantic Analysis. A Practical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Grant, A. P.
2002 El chabacano zamboangueño, una lengua mezclada. Papia 12: 7–40.Google Scholar
2003 Reduplication in Mindanao Chabacano. In Kouwenberg (ed.), 213–220.Google Scholar
2009 Admixture, structural transmission, simplicity, and creolisation. In Simplicity and Complexity in Creoles and Pidgins, N. Faraclas & T. B. Klein (eds), 125–152. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
Greenberg, J. H.
1963 Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements. In Universals of Grammar, J. H. Greenberg (ed.), 73–113. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press.Google Scholar
Ham, W. H.
1999 Tone Sandhi in Saramaccan. A case of substrate transfer? Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 14(1): 45–91. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hammarström, H.
2015 The basic word order typology: An exhaustive study. Paper presented at Diversity Linguistics: Retrospect and Prospect Conference, Leipzig, 3 May.Google Scholar
Hammarström, H. & Parkvall M.
2016 Basic constituent order in pidgin and creole languages: Inheritance or universals? Journal of Language Contact 1: 65–69. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hancock, I.
1974 Lexical expansion within a closed system. In Sociocultural Dimensions of Language Change, B. Blount & M. Sanches (eds), 161–171. New York NY: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Haspelmath, M. & Michaelis, S. M.
2003 Ditransitive constructions: Creole languages in a cross-linguistic perspective. Creolica: Revue du Groupe Européen de Recherches en Langues Créoles. [URL]
Haspelmath, M. & Tadmor, U.
(eds) 2009 Loanwords in the World’s Languages: A Comparative Handbook. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Haspelmath, M., Dryer, M. S., Gil, D. & Comrie, B.
(eds) 2005 The World Atlas of Linguistic Language Structures. Oxford: OUP.Google Scholar
(eds) 2008 The World Atlas of Linguistic Language Structures Online. Munich: Max Planck Digital Library.Google Scholar
Heine, B.
1982 The Nubi Language of Kibera – An Arabic Creole. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.Google Scholar
Heine, B. & Kuteva, T.
2001 Attributive possession in creoles. In Pidgins and Creoles Archive 7 [URL]
Holm, J. A.
1988 Pidgins and Creoles, Vol. 1: Theory and Structure. Cambridge: CUP.Google Scholar
Holm, J.
2000 Introduction to Pidgins and Creoles. Cambridge: CUP. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Holm, J. & Patrick, P. L.
(eds) 2007 Comparative Creole Syntax. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
Holm, J.
2008 Creolization and the fate of inflections. In Aspects of Language Contact. New Theoretical, Methodological and Empirical Findings with Special Focus on Romancisation Processes, T. Stolz, D. Bakker & R. S. Palomo (eds), 299–324. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Huber, M. & the APiCS Consortium
2013a Order of adposition and noun phrase. In Michaelis et al. (eds). Oxford: OUP. [URL] (1 November 2014).
2013b Order of possessor and possessum. In Michaelis et al. (eds). Oxford: OUP. [URL] (7 June 2015).
Hussainmiya, B. A.
1987 Lost Cousins: The Malays of Sri Lanka, Occasional Paper, Vol. 2. Kebangsaan: Universiti Kebangsaan.Google Scholar
Jacobs, M.
1932 Notes on the structure of Chinook jargon. Language 8: 27–50. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jourdan, C.
2004 Solomon Islands Pijin. Morphology and syntax. In A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool, Vol. 2: Morphology and Syntax, B. Kortmann & E. W. Schneider (eds), 702–719. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Klein, T. B.
2005 Phonological typology of phonemes in Portuguese- and Spanish-lexified creole languages. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Portuguese and Spanish Lexically Based Creoles. Orléans, 27–30 June.Google Scholar
2006a Creole phonology typology: Phoneme inventory size, vowel quality distinctions and stop consonant series. In The Structure of Creole Words: Segmental, Syllabic and Morphological Aspects, P. Bhatt & I. Plag (eds), 3–21. Tübingen: Niemeyer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2006b  Segmental typology of African creole languages . In Selected Proceedings of the 36th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, O. F. Arasanyin & M. Pemberton (eds), 42–50. Somerville MA: Cascadilla.Google Scholar
2011 Typology of creole phonology: Phoneme inventories and syllable templates. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 26(1): 155–193. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kouwenberg, S.
1992a From OV to VO: Linguistic negotiation in the development of Berbice Dutch Creole. Lingua 88: 263–299. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1992b Cliticization of pronouns in Berbice Dutch and Eastern Ijo. In Atlantic Meets Pacific: A Global View of Pidginization and Creolization [Creole Language Library 11], F. X. Byrne & J. Holm (eds), 119–132. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1994 A Grammar of Berbice Dutch Creole. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(ed.) 2003 Twice as Meaningful. Reduplication in Pidgins, Creoles and Other Contact Languages. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
Kouwenberg, S. & LaCharité, D.
2004 Echoes of Africa: Reduplication in Caribbean creoles and Niger-Congo languages. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 19(2): 285–331. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2011 The typology of Caribbean creole reduplication. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 26(1): 194–218. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ladhams, J.
2012 Article agglutination and the African contribution to the Portuguese-based creoles. In A. Bartens & P. Baker (eds), 31–50.Google Scholar
Lefebvre, C.
2001 On the semantic opacity of creole languages. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 16(2): 321–353. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2003 The emergence of productive morphology in creole languages: The case of Haitian Creole. In Yearbook of morphology 2002, G. E. Booij & J. van Marle (eds), 35–80. Dordrecht: Kluwer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(ed.) 2011 Creoles, their Substrates, and Language Typology [Typological Studies in Language 95]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lesho, M.
2013 The Sociophonetics and Phonology of the Cavite Chabacano Vowel System. PhD dissertation, Ohio State University.Google Scholar
Lipski, J. & Santoro, M.
2007 Zamboangueño (Creole Spanish). In Holm & Patrick (eds), 373–398.Google Scholar
Luís, A. R.
2010 The loss and survival of inflectional morphology: Contextual vs. inherent inflection in creoles. In Romance Linguistics 2009 [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 315], S. Colina, A. Olarrea & A. Carvalho (eds), 323–336. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Maddieson, I.
1984 Patterns of Sounds. Cambridge: CUP. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2005a Vowel quality inventories. In Haspelmath et al. (eds), 14–17.Google Scholar
2005b Tone. In Haspelmath et al. (eds), 58–61.Google Scholar
2005c Syllable structure. In Haspelmath et al. (eds), 54–57.Google Scholar
McWhorter, J. & Good, J.
2012 A Grammar of Saramaccan Creole. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McWhorter, J. H.
1998 Identifying the creole prototype. Vindicating a typological class. Language 74: 788–818. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2001 The world’s simplest grammars are creole grammars. Linguistic Typology 5(2–3): 125–166. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2005 Defining Creole. Oxford: OUP.Google Scholar
2011 Linguistic Simplicity and Complexity: Why Do Languages Undress? Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Michaelis, S. M., Maurer, P., Haspelmath, M. & Huber, M.
2013 The Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Structures. Oxford: OUP.Google Scholar
Mufwene, S. S.
2008 Language Evolution: Contact, Competition and Change. London: Continuum. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mufwene, S. & Condon, N.
(eds) 1993 Africanisms in Afro-American Language Varieties. Athens GA: University of Georgia Press.Google Scholar
Mühlhäusler, P.
1986 Bonnet blanc and blanc bonnet: Adjective-noun order, substratum and language universals. In Muysken & Smith (eds), 41–55. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1997 Pidgin and Creole Linguistics. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
Muysken, P. & Law, P.
2001 Creole studies. A theoretical linguist’s field guide. Glot International 5(2): 47–57.Google Scholar
Muysken, P. & Smith, N.
(eds) 1986 Substrata versus Universals in Creole Genesis: Papers from the Amsterdam Creole Workshop, April 1985 [Creole Language Library 1]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nordhoff, S.
2009 A Grammar of Upcountry Sri Lanka Malay. Utrecht: LOT.Google Scholar
Parkvall, M.
2000 Out of Africa. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
Forthcoming. Afrolex: Lexical Africanisms in Atlantic Creoles and Related Varieties. London: Battlebridge.
Plag, I.
2005 Morphology in pidgins and creoles. In Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol. 8, K. Brown (ed.), 304–308. Oxford: Elsevier.Google Scholar
2008 Creoles as interlanguages: Inflectional morphology. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 23(1): 114–135. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2009 Creoles as interlanguages: Word-formation. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 24(2): 339–362. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2011 Creolization and admixture: Typology, feature pools, and second language acquisition. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 26(1): 89–110. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rijkhoff, J.
2004 The Noun Phrase [Oxford Studies in Typology and Linguistic Theory]. Oxford: OUP.Google Scholar
Roberts, S. & Bresnan, J.
2008 Retained inflectional morphology in pidgins: A typological study. Linguistic Typology 12: 269–302. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Romaine, S.
1988 Pidgin and Creole languages. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Seuren, P. A. M.
1990 Serial verb constructions. In When Verbs Collide: Papers from the 1990 Ohio State Mini-Conference on Serial Verbs [Working Papers in Linguistics 39], B. D. Joseph & A. M. Zwicky (eds), 14–33. Columbus OH: The Ohio State University Department of Linguistics.Google Scholar
1998 Western Linguistics: An Historical Introduction. Oxford: Whiley-Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Seuren, P. A. M. & Wekker, H.
1986 Semantic transparency as a factor in creole genesis. In Muysken & Smith (eds), 57–70. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Singler, J. V.
(ed.) 1990 Pidgin and Creole Tense-Mood-Aspect Systems [Creole Language Library 6]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sippola, E.
2011 Una gramatica descriptiva del Chabacano de Ternate. PhD dissertation, University of Helsinki.Google Scholar
Smith, I. R.
1979a Convergence in South Asia: A creole example. Lingua 48: 193–222. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1979b Substrata versus universals in the formation of Sri Lanka Portuguese. In Papers in Pidgin and Creole linguistics, No 2, P. Mühlhäuser (ed.), 183–200. Canberra: Australian National University.Google Scholar
1984 The development of morphosyntax in Sri Lanka Creole Portuguese. In York Papers in Linguistics, M. Sebba & L. Todd (eds), 291–301. York: University of York.Google Scholar
2013 Sri Lanka Portuguese. In Michaelis et al. (eds), 111–121.Google Scholar
Smith, N. S. H.
2001 Voodoo Chile: Differential substrate effects in Saramaccan and Haitian. In Creolization and Contact [Creole Language Library 23], N. Smith & T. Veenstra (eds), 43–80. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2008 Creole phonology. In The Handbook of Pidgin and Creole Studies, S. Kouwenberg & J. V. Singler (eds), 98–129. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Sreedhar, M. V.
1974 Naga Pidgin: A Sociolinguistic Study on Interlingual Communication Patterns in Nagaland. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.Google Scholar
Stassen, L.
2013 Predicative Possession. In Dryer & Haspelmath (eds). [URL] (24 June 2015)
Steinkrüger, P. O.
2003 Morphological processes of word formation in Chabacano (Philippine Spanish Creole). In Phonology and Morphology of Creole Languages, I. Plag (ed.), 53–68. Tübingen: Niemeyer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2006 The puzzling case of Chabacano: Creolization, substrate, mixing and secondary contact. The Tenth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics (10-ICAL), Palawan, the Philippines. [URL] (23 June 2015)
2009 Inflectional morphology in a creole: A report on Chabacano (Philippine Spanish Creole). In On Inflection, P. O. Steinkrüger & M. Krifka (eds), 219–236. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tadmor, U.
2009 Loanwords in the world’s languages. Findings and results. In Haspelmath & Tadmor (eds), 55–75. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Trudgill, P.
2004 Linguistic and social typology: The Austronesian migrations and phoneme inventories. Linguistic Typology 8: 305–320. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Valdman, A.
1978 Le Créole: Structure, statut et origine. Paris: Klincksieck.Google Scholar
Veenstra, T.
1994 The acquisition of functional categories: The creole way. In Creolization and Language Change, D. Adone & I. Plag (eds), 99–117. Tübingen: Niemeyer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Velupillai, V.
2015 Pidgins, Creoles and Mixed Languages. An Introduction [Creole Language Library 48]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Watson, R. L. & Biajo Ola, L.
1985 Juba Arabic for Beginners. Nairobi: Summer Institute of Linguistics.Google Scholar
Wellens, I.
2005 The Nubi Language of Uganada: An Arabic Creole in Africa. Leiden: Brill. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Winford, D.
1993 Predication in Caribbean English Creoles [Creole Language Library 10]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar