Index
A
- actuation266
see also language change
- address pronounSee
pronounsee
- addressee
54–56
,
79–80
, 199,
214–217
, 253
- ageSee
socio-demographic/social categorysee
- American War of Independence13, 16
- anvil-shaped status/solidarity model199, 211, 217, 259
- apparent time6, 63,
164–167
, 176, 262
-
ARCHER Corpus
46,
181–182
,
185–186
, 191, 201, 215
- authenticitySee
see Corpus of Early English Correspondence Extension
-
Authorized Version
See
see King James Bible
- awareness25, 37,
40–41
, 91, 114, 183, 253
- conscious awareness253,
259–260
- language awareness10, 27, 29, 34, 139, 147, 249, 257, 268
- social awareness64,
258–259
, 266
B
- biblical language84, 88,
92–93
, 253
- -body
137–158
,
221–222
,
226–228
,
236–238
, 240,
245–249
, 252, 256,
258–262
, 265, 267
- Browne, Thomas
109–113
, 264
- Burney, Charles86,
173–174
, 177, 238,
240–241
- Burney, Frances (Fanny)24, 174, 177, 237,
240–241
C
- capital region111, 195, 265
see also region, London; region, Court
- CEECSee
see Corpus of Early English Correspondence
- CEECESee
see Corpus of Early English Correspondence Extension
- change from aboveSee
language changesee
- change from belowSee
language changesee
- class
18–20
,
25–26
, 35, 47, 199,
207–211
, 217,
243–245
,
248–250
,
259–261
, 265
see also rank, social class, social order, social rank, social stratification
- lower class
25–26
, 35, 48, 217
- middle class15, 27,
30–32
, 90, 199,
260–261
- Clift, Elizabeth24, 114, 150, 179, 191,
193–196
,
207–210
, 237, 240, 265
- Clift, John
110–114
, 209,
264–265
- Clift, William24,
39–40
,
113–114
, 179,
193–196
,
207–210
, 238, 240, 265
- codification, codified language10, 27, 37
see also standard language, standardization
- colloquial language/variety42, 99,
160–161
, 191, 200, 253
- communal changeSee
language changesee
- consciousnessSee
awarenesssee
- conservatism (linguistic)67,
109–111
, 140, 152,
155–158
,
173–174
,
235–242
, 252
-
Corpus of Early English Correspondence (CEEC)6,
45–48
, 50,
56–57
, 62
-
Corpus of Early English Correspondence Extension (CEECE)11,
19–20
,
24–25
,
45–58
- editions
45–46
,
50–51
,
54–56
,
295–304
- external databases47,
56–57
- informants
24–25
, 45,
47–54
-
Corpus of Late 18c Prose (CLEP)46
-
Corpus of Late Modern English Texts (CLMET)4, 223
-
Corpus of Nineteenth-Century English (CONCE)181
- correspondence
5–6
,
20–21
,
25–26
,
45–52
,
54–57
, 61,
87–89
, 126, 215, 218
see also letter-writing
- family correspondence
49–50
, 56,
83–84
, 86, 92,
112–114
,
191–196
,
209–211
, 248
- personal correspondence
5–6
,
45–46
, 61,
77–78
,
94–95
, 102,
115–116
, 161, 231
- private correspondence40,
83–84
, 181,
183–184
, 185, 195
- Cowper, William83,
85–86
,
173–175
, 177,
207–209
, 217,
238–240
- Curvilinear Principle199,
259–261
D
- Darwin, Erasmus25,
173–174
, 177, 208, 236, 238,
240–241
- data retrieval
58–59
, 68
- Defoe, Daniel24,
173–174
, 208, 237,
240–241
- detachment113
see also involvement
- dialect
- capital region111, 195, 265
- contact99, 164, 253, 256, 261
- dialectal differences
100–101
, 173
- eastern dialect(s)111
see also region, East Anglia
- mainstream dialect(s)6, 63,
97–98
, 114, 116
- northern dialect(s)
253–254
;
see also region, North
- regional dialect(s)111,
172–173
, 261
- southern dialect(s)99,
172–173
; ,
253–254
;
see also capital region; region, Home Counties
- diffusion of change3,
7–12
; ,
62–63
; ,
97–108
; ,
114–115
; , 159,
164–165
; ,
167–170
; , 173, 175,
231–232
; , 249,
255–260
;
see also language change, lexical diffusion
- discourse23, 84, 94, 119,
122–123
-
does, doth
See
verbal -
sees
-
do-periphrasis8,
71–73
,
117–135
,
237–239
,
243–244
- affirmative statement8,
71–73
,
117–118
, 120, 122,
124–126
,
128–130
,
133–134
,
231–232
,
251–252
, 254, 264
-
do-support8,
117–118
, 121,
133–134
- emphatic
119–123
,
127–129
,
133–134
- negative statement8, 118,
121–122
, 124
- place of adverbial124, 132
- subject type
129–130
,
133–134
- type of main verb123,
130–134
- Draper, Eliza174,
207–208
, 217, 237, 240, 265
E
-
Early English Books Online (EEBO)
101–102
- education
20–21
, 27,
30–35
, 109,
189–190
-
Eighteenth-Century English Grammars database (ECEG)
28–29
, 33, 34n5
- embedding
- social6,
9–10
, 63,
126–129
,
143–155
, 158,
159–160
, 169, 173, 228
- English
- Middle English
7–9
, 63,
78–79
, 199, 250
- Early Modern English
5–9
, 36, 45,
47–48
,
78–79
, 81, 119, 137, 158, 226
- Late Modern English4, 40, 47,
180–184
, 246
- Present-Day English
117–118
,
121–124
,
129–130
, 132, 134, 138, 152, 159, 200, 247
- Evelyn, John
173–174
, 237
F
- factor
see also variable
- grammatical factor81, 160, 175, 248
- linguistic factor3, 161, 164
- social factor3, 79,
159–160
, 199, 243, 257, 268
- family
- nuclear family56,
83–84
, 86, 92, 128,
191–193
, 205, 210, 248, 252
- other family56,
83–84
, 192, 205
- formality79, 90, 97, 200, 217, 253,
263–264
- formulaic language
25–26
,
85–86
, 209
- closing formula, subscription formula85, 93
G
- gender6,
33–34
,
48–51
,
144–147
, 155,
187–188
, 228,
241–245
, 269
- Great Gender Shift
267–268
- variationSee
variationsee
- generational changeSee
language changesee
- genre
4–5
, 42,
181–182
, 191, 201, 215, 232, 247
- formal genre(s)138, 200,
217–218
- literate genre(s)
81–82
, 91, 138
- oral genre(s)137, 144, 154, 161
- written genre(s)61, 130, 200,
217–218
, 250
- George III15, 24, 49, 77, 177
- George IV49, 77, 174, 209
- Google Ngram Viewer
224–225
,
227–233
- grammar25,
27–43
,
81–82
, 88, 91,
120–122
, 139,
248–249
,
267–268
see also prescriptivism
- normative grammar10, 14,
35–43
,
114–116
, 175,
215–216
, 254, 263
- variable grammar
108–109
, 116
- grammarians
30–42
,
81–82
, 84, 91,
114–115
,
119–121
,
182–183
, 218, 263
- grammaticalization8, 141, 182, 247
H
-
has, hath
See
verbal -
sees
-
Helsinki Corpus of English Texts (HC)45, 161
- Historical Paradox
269–270
- historical sociolinguisticsSee
sociolinguisticssee
I
- illiteracySee
literacysee
- incipient changeSee
stage/phase of changesee
- incoming variant/formSee
variantsee
- indefinite pronouns with singular human referenceSee
pronounsee
- individuals55,
64–65
; , 67, 102,
105–111
; ,
142–143
; ,
154–157
; , 168,
173–175
; , 191,
193–195
; ,
207–209
; ,
235–242
; , 266
see also conservatism, outliers, progressivism
- industrialization
15–18
, 27
- informal language42, 155,
184–185
, 193, 196
- -ing
See
progressive aspectsee
- innovation, innovative formSee
linguistic innovationsee
- interior social group199,
259–260
;
see also Curvilinear Principle
- interpersonal identity
91–94
- intimacy
91–94
, 116, 127, 196, 253,
264–266
- inversion118, 121,
124–125
;
see also NICE properties, word order
- involvement113,
214–215
, 218,
253–254
,
264–265
-
its
7–8
; ,
10–11
; , 59,
159–177
; ,
221–222
; , 232,
235–238
; ,
240–242
; ,
245–247
; , 249,
255–256
; , 258,
260–262
; ,
266–267
;
see also of it, thereof
- -ity
68, 70,
197–218
,
237–240
, 245, 250, 260, 265, 267
J
- Johnson, Samuel19, 38, 82, 121,
173–174
, 177, 183, 238,
240–241
K
-
King James Bible
97, 151, 253
L
- LALMESee
see Linguistic Atlas of Late Medieval English
- language
- community3, 259
see also speech community
- ideology
21–22
, 37, 79, 257
- language change
see also actuation, diffusion, stage/phase of change, transition
- communal164, 167, 176, 249, 262
- from above151, 169, 249, 268
- from below46, 107, 169,
188–189
, 199,
248–249
, 259, 268
- generational164,
166–167
, 176, 249, 262
- grammatical4,
179–180
; , 200, 224
see also grammaticalization
- lacking a variable
68–74
, 221
- lifespan173,
236–237
; ,
262–263
;
see also individuals
- phonological, sound change7, 64,
99–100
,
258–260
- semantic
141–142
, 199, 201,
211–215
, 218, 268
- time course of change
7–9
,
103–104
, 165,
246–247
,
251–252
, 260
- language of immediacy, language of distance264n9
- Latin 31–33, 36, 199,
215–216
, 250
- legal language
119–121
, 123
- Lennox, Sarah (Sarah Duchess Lennox)24, 117,
173–174
, 177, 208, 237, 240
- letterSee
correspondencesee
- letter-writing
20–21
,
25–26
, 34, 77, 185, 201,
214–215
, 250, 265
- lexical diffusion97,
99–100
,
103–104
,
114–115
, 251
-
Linguistic Atlas of Late Medieval English (LALME)101
- linguistic
- changeSee
language changesee
- embeddingSee
embeddingsee
- formulaSee
formulaic languagesee
- innovation6, 89, 173, 179, 188, 254, 266
- variabilitySee
variationsee
- variationSee
variationsee
- literacy
20–21
, 23, 27,
34–35
, 46, 51
M
- macro level
203–205
, 209, 217, 269
- -man
137–158
,
226–228
, 244,
252–253
, 256, 258, 265, 267
- metadata5,
56–59
, 225, 233
- methods
- accumulation curve
69–72
, 198
- averaging of averages
64–67
, 102, 105, 108
- beanplot
72–73
,
127–128
,
184–185
,
187–188
- bootstrapping
65–67
,
106–107
,
145–146
, 148,
167–168
,
170–171
- chi-square test69, 104, 169
- false discovery rate
73–74
, 202, 217
- log-likelihood ratio test69
- Mann–Whitney U testSee
Wilcoxon rank-sum testsee
- mean/normalized frequency
64–65
,
68–69
,
72–73
, 102, 106,
125–126
, 167, 172,
180–181
,
184–187
,
193–194
,
221–223
, 246, 251
- median frequency65, 72, 184
- multiple hypothesis testing
73–74
- permutation testing
69–71
, 188,
193–194
, 198,
235–236
- pooling
64–67
, 102,
105–108
,
167–168
, 171
- statistical significance
69–74
, 104,
126–127
,
144–151
, 169,
187–189
, 198,
200–207
,
217–218
, 243, 248, 257
- token frequency69, 71, 198
- type frequency
69–70
, 198
- VARBRUL, GoldVarb, Rbrul67n2
- variability-based neighbour clustering (VNC)
62–63
- Wilcoxon rank-sum test
72–74
, 127
- migration14, 16, 54, 261, 268
see also socio-demographic/social category
- mobilitySee
social mobility, socio-demographic/social categorysee
- morphological productivity69, 198
- multiple negationSee
negationsee
N
- negation121, 124
see also NICE properties
- negative concord6, 8, 256n2, 263n7
- -ness
11, 68,
197–218
, 245
- network
- social network90, 164, 185, 199, 241, 259
- neuter possessive, third-person
7–8
; ,
159–177
; , 232, 247, 249
see also its, of it, thereof
- nominal suffixes
201–202
;
see also -ness, -ity
- non-standard21, 38, 80, 91, 265
- normative grammarSee
grammarsee
- norms
37–39
, 41,
90–91
, 129,
258–259
- noun
38–39
, 68, 130, 133, 162,
200–201
, 215, 232
O
-
of it
59,
159–163
; , 165, 173, 175, 232, 247, 267
see also its, thereof
-
Old Bailey Corpus (OBC)4, 223
- -one
137–158
,
226–228
,
237–238
,
240–241
,
245–249
, 252, 255, 262
- orthographySee
spellingsee
- outgoing variant/formSee
variantsee
- outliers67, 72,
109–114
; ,
127–128
; , 173,
193–196
; ,
207–209
; ,
235–242
; , 248, 260
see also individuals
-
Oxford English Dictionary (OED)80, 160,
201–202
, 216
P
-
Parsed Corpus of Early English Correspondence (PCEEC)
45–46
, 57
- part-of-speech tagging
229–230
, 232
- Pepys, Samuel
173–174
, 208, 237, 240
- periodization
11–12
,
61–64
, 168, 255
- periphrastic do
See
-periphrasisseedo
- phonology, phonological
- changeSee
language changesee
- variationSee
variationsee
- Piozzi, Hester (Mrs Thrale)85,
127–129
, 174, 235, 237, 239, 241
- polite society22,
25–26
, 91, 225, 265
- politeness
21–23
, 25,
27–29
, 30,
79–82
, 90, 201, 225, 258
- possessive determiner/pronounSee
pronounsee
- power15, 19, 50, 55, 78, 80, 86,
91–94
- prescriptivism4, 10, 14, 27, 29,
37–41
, 259
- prestige21, 154, 247, 265
- Principle of Contingency268
- private correspondenceSee
correspondencesee
- problem of continuation
266–268
- progressive aspect11, 59, 68,
179–196
,
221–222
, 233,
237–240
,
245–246
, 248, 255, 258, 260
-
a-prefixed progressive183
- progressive passival179, 183
- progressive passive42,
179–180
,
182–183
, 246
- progressivism (linguistic)67,
173–175
,
235–242
- pronoun
7–8
, 40, 59, 113, 137, 139, 147,
200–201
- address pronouns78, 80, 91, 94
- indefinite pronouns with singular human reference
7–8
; , 10,
137–158
; ,
221–222
; ,
226–228
; ,
235–241
; ,
246–247
; ,
252–253
; , 255, 258,
260–262
; , 265, 267
see also -body, -man, -one
- possessive pronouns/determiners
7–8
; ,
10–11
; , 59, 113, 164, 201
see also its
- second-person pronouns
7–8
; , 10,
77–95
; ,
251–253
; , 265
see also thou, you
- pronunciation7, 37, 80, 82, 99, 118, 216
R
- rank
18–21
, 25, 35,
50–52
,
108–111
, 127,
149–152
,
169–170
,
188–191
, 195,
205–208
, 211, 241,
248–250
, 260
see also class, social class, social order, social rank, social stratification
- clergy22, 47, 89, 111, 116,
150–152
, 191, 205, 218, 236, 241,
252–253
, 260, 265
- gentry15, 19, 126,
149–150
, 164, 236
- lower ranks18, 46, 48,
51–52
, 78, 189, 191, 196
- merchants
19–21
, 24, 50, 112
- middle/middling ranks15, 30, 50, 90, 211, 236, 261
- nobility52, 108,
149–151
, 169, 260
- professionals19, 22, 50,
149–152
, 164, 188,
194–195
,
205–207
, 209, 217, 236, 241,
260–261
- royalty15, 24, 52, 205,
209–211
, 218, 265
- upper gentry126, 134, 252
- upper ranks
51–52
, 78, 80, 108, 111, 166
- rate of change7, 42, 63,
255–257
, 263
- stability37, 246,
256–257
- real time
3–4
, 6,
41–42
, 61,
63–64
,
166–167
, 255,
261–263
,
268–269
- region
52–54
- East Anglia47, 54, 101, 111
- London13,
15–16
,
52–54
,
152–154
, 195, 249, 261n5
- North
100–101
,
152–154
,
172–173
, 253
- regional
- variationSee
variationsee
- register
25–26
,
55–56
, 61, 88,
111–112
, 116, 123, 209, 239,
243–245
, 248,
250–251
, 253,
263–266
- variationSee
variationsee
- relationship between sender and recipient of the letter
55–56
, 77, 86, 127, 199,
204–205
, 217, 252, 264
- representativeness47, 102, 228
S
- S-curve42, 61, 63, 100, 104,
134–135
, 165, 255
- salience42, 134, 169, 248, 251
- sampling47,
62–67
, 69, 102
- Sancho, Ignatius25, 83,
87–94
, 174, 191, 238, 265
-
says, saith
See
verbal -
sees
- semantics141,
161–162
, 175, 201,
211–215
, 218
- sex
33–34
;
see also gender
- social
- aspirer111, 236, 241, 261
- awarenessSee
awarenesssee
- background22, 55,
90–91
, 116, 197, 235
- class23, 35, 38, 81, 91, 197, 199, 243,
259–260
;
see also class, social stratification
- distance
55–56
, 80,
92–93
, 199,
264–265
- embeddingSee
embeddingsee
- group35, 62, 90,
149–152
; ,
259–261
;
see also social stratification, interior social group
- hierarchy90, 108,
260–261
- mobility
18–19
, 22,
110–111
,
236–241
, 261
- order21, 62, 102, 108, 259
see also social stratification
- rank48,
50–52
; , 108, 169,
188–191
; ,
205–206
; , 208, 236, 241
see also rank, social stratification
- relation
55–56
, 90, 214, 253, 264
- status34,
50–51
; , 62, 80,
91–92
; , 94,
107–108
; , 111,
126–127
; ,
147–152
; ,
168–170
; , 189, 236, 242,
244–245
; , 248, 252,
259–261
;
see also social stratification
- stratification
18–19
, 149, 151, 164, 248
- variationSee
variationsee
- socio-demographic/social category 17–18, 62,
107–108
, 149,
203–206
, 250,
260–261
see also variable
- age109, 127, 140,
147–148
,
156–157
, 164,
166–168
, 173, 262, 268
- domicile
53–54
;
see also region
- regional mobility53
see also migration
- social mobilitySee
social mobilitysee
- social statusSee
social statussee
- sociohistorical linguisticsSee
sociolinguisticssee
- sociolinguistic
- method
45–46
; , 261
see also methods
- patterns63, 243,
248–249
,
252–253
,
257–263
, 269
- sociolinguistics
4–6
, 9, 46, 163, 228, 233,
255–270
- historical5, 46, 140, 221, 246,
268–269
- present-day/modern6, 9, 45, 199, 262
- variationist4, 6, 61, 224,
257–258
, 261
- speech community166, 211, 268
see also language community
- spelling55,
57–59
, 102, 113, 116, 226, 233
- spoken language118, 122, 126
- stage/phase of change8, 10,
62–64
, 134, 165, 176, 181, 239,
243–258
- incipient11, 28, 42, 141, 144, 151, 236,
239–242
,
246–247
,
255–256
, 260
- new and vigorous
63–64
,
246–247
,
255–256
- mid-range104, 108, 165,
168–169
,
235–236
,
239–242
,
246–247
, 249,
255–258
,
260–261
- nearing completion42,
63–64
, 104, 108, 149, 155,
168–169
, 176, 235, 239,
246–247
,
251–252
, 256, 260
- completed
7–8
, 63, 104, 106, 108,
141–142
,
146–147
, 149, 165, 247,
251–252
,
256–258
, 260
- standard language22n5, 37
- standardization22, 27,
37–38
; , 163, 200, 215, 257
see also codification, prescriptivism
- style of writing
25–26
,
81–82
,
84–86
,
88–91
, 94,
113–115
, 121,
200–201
, 207,
214–215
,
217–218
- informational201,
214–215
- involved201, 211,
214–215
,
217–218
- stylistic change38, 200,
217–218
, 250
- supralocalization, supralocal use253,
258–259
, 261
T
- tense118,
122–123
, 134, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188,
193–194
, 196, 246, 251
-
thereof
11, 59,
160–162
; , 165,
221–222
; , 232
see also its, of it
- third-person neuter possessiveSee
neuter possessivesee
- third-person singular (suffix)
7–8
; , 11, 40, 65, 97,
112–115
; , 130
see also verbal -s
-
thou
59,
77–95
, 130, 230, 235,
237–239
,
243–244
,
251–254
, 265
see also you
- status-related contexts81, 91
- transition19,
266–267
;
see also language change
U
- urbanization, urban
15–18
; , 200,
265–266
;
see also dialect
V
- vanishing evidence/reliability64, 67, 248, 258
- variable
see also factor
- linguistic variable
5–6
,
11–12
,
61–62
,
67–73
, 105,
108–109
, 146, 152, 163, 199, 228, 243,
246–248
, 252,
255–257
, 259, 266
- phonological variable63, 266
- social variable98, 105, 126, 129, 134, 147, 252, 257
- speaker variable61
see also socio-demographic/social category
- variant7,
10–11
,
38–42
, 59, 64, 99,
101–102
, 109n4, 113, 115,
137–162
, 165, 173, 175, 180, 200, 221,
226–228
, 236,
246–249
,
253–254
, 258,
261–262
, 266
- incoming3, 6, 63, 65, 67, 97, 100, 106, 109,
141–144
, 153, 158, 160,
164–165
, 168,
221–222
,
227–228
,
235–236
,
251–253
, 258,
262–263
- outgoing/recessive10, 42,
64–65
, 67, 97, 104, 109,
111–112
,
114–116
, 134, 142,
146–147
, 149,
152–153
,
155–157
, 228, 231, 235,
251–254
,
262–265
- variation
- gender variation9,
105–107
,
164–165
,
170–172
,
187–188
,
196–197
,
200–207
, 211, 213, 218,
252–253
,
257–259
- linguistic variation38, 61, 72, 134,
180–181
, 184, 200, 207, 218, 221, 223, 228, 243, 255, 260, 263
- phonological variation266
- regional variation
100–101
, 111, 116, 129, 138,
152–154
,
172–173
,
253–254
, 261, 265
- register variation
55–56
,
79–80
,
94–95
, 97, 100,
191–193
, 199,
201–202
,
217–218
, 232,
253–254
,
263–264
- social variation64, 102, 109,
126–129
, 136,
149–152
, 155, 160, 169, 199, 228,
244–245
, 249,
257–259
- variationist approachSee
sociolinguisticssee
- verbal -s
7–8
,
62–63
,
65–66
,
97–116
,
221–222
,
230–231
, 235,
237–239
,
251–257
,
259–260
,
264–265
- vernacular31,
33–34
, 112, 137,
150–155
, 249, 253
- visualizationSee
methodssee
W
- Wanley, Humphrey127,
173–174
, 177, 208, 237,
239–240
- Wollstonecraft, Mary
22–23
, 174, 177,
193–195
, 237,
240–241
- word-formation36, 198, 215, 250, 267
- word order
36–37
; , 119, 132
see also inversion, NICE properties
- written language116, 122, 126, 196, 200
Y
-
ye, you
7–8
; ,
78–82
; ,
90–94
; , 113, 230, 260
see also thou