Article published in:
Visually Situated Language Comprehension
Edited by Pia Knoeferle, Pirita Pyykkönen-Klauck and Matthew W. Crocker
[Advances in Consciousness Research 93] 2016
► pp. 323–356

Coordinating action and language

| Department of Psychology & Delta Center, University of Iowa
| Department of Psychology, University of Cincinnati
| Department of Psychology, New York University
| Cognition and Information Sciences, University of California – Merced
The overarching aim of this chapter is to highlight the strong interfacing between linguistic and motor systems, focusing especially on the degree to which manipulations of a visual context interact with linguistic manipulations in order to modulate the properties of manual movements elicited in response to a linguistic signal. First, we provide a review of recent work in the domain of embodied cognition that highlights the engagement of motor systems during language comprehension, including gestures, eye movements, and postural sway. In the context of this body of work, we then focus on the notion that continuous and non-ballistic computer-mouse movement trajectories can serve as a viable motoric index of various aspects of language processing. The results of studies that have recorded mouse-movement trajectories in visual-world displays will be reviewed, with the goal of highlighting the methodological benefits of data contained in the recorded trajectories, along with their theoretical consequences. New data will be presented from a study in which both eye- and hand-movements were simultaneously recorded, speaking to the relationship between the two movement-related dependent measures. Finally, we will highlight the degree to which mouse-movements around a visual display can be informative for domains other than syntactic processing, focusing on new data from research designed to investigate the processing of verbal aspect.
Published online: 10 March 2016
https://doi.org/10.1075/aicr.93.12far
References
Allopenna, P.D., Magnuson, J.S., & Tanenhaus, M.K
(1998) Tracking the time course of spoken word recognition using eye movements: Evidence for continuous mapping models. Journal of Memory and Language, 38, 419-439. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Altmann, G.T.M., Garnham, A., & Dennis, Y
(1992) Avoiding the garden-path: Eye movements in context. Journal of Memory and Language, 31, 685-712. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Altmann, G.T.M., Garnham, A., & Henstra, J
(1994) Effects of syntax in human sentence parsing: Evidence against a structure-based proposal mechanism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 209-216. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Altmann, G.T.M., & Kamide, Y
(1999) Incremental interpretation at verbs: Restricting the domain of subsequent reference. Cognition, 73, 247-264. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Altmann G.T.M., & Steedman, M
(1988) Interaction with context during human sentence processing. Cognition, 30, 191-238. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Altmann, G.T.M., van Nice, K., Garnham, A., & Henstra, J.A
(1998) Late closure in context. Journal of Memory and Language. 38, 459-484. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, S.E., Farmer, T.A., Goldstein, M., Schwade, J., & Spivey, M
(2011) Individual differences in measures of linguistic experience account for variability in the sentence processing skill of five-year-olds. In I. Arnon & E.V. Clark (Eds.), Experience, variation, and generalization: Learning a first language (pp. 203-221). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, S.E., Matlock, T., Fausey, C., & Spivey, M.J
(2008) On the path to understanding on-line processing of grammatical aspect. In Proceedings of the 30th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 143-148). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Anderson, S.E., Matlock, T., & Spivey, M
(2013) Grammatical aspect and temporal distance in motion descriptions. Frontiers in Psychology, 4. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bever, T.G
(1970) The cognitive basis for linguistic structures. In J.R. Hayes (Ed.), Cognition and the growth of cognition (pp. 279-362). New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar
Barsalou, L.W
(1999) Perceptual symbol systems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 577-660.Google Scholar
Boulenger, V., Roy, A.C., Paulignan, Y., Deprez, V., Jeannerod, M., & Nazir, T.A
(2006) Cross-talk between language processes and overt motor behavior in the first 200 msec of processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 1607-1615. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Britt, M.A
(1994) The interaction of referential ambiguity and argument structure in the parsing of prepositional phrases. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 251-283. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Brown, C.M., Van Berkum, J.J.A., & Hagoort, P
(2000) Discourse before gender: An event-related brain potential study on the interplay of semantic and syntactic information during spoken language understanding. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 29, 53-68. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Calvert, S., Rideout, V., Woolard, J., Barr, R., & Strouse, G
(2005) Age, ethnicity, and socioeconomic patterns in early computer use: A national survey. American Behavioral Scientist 48, 590-607. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Casasanto, D., & Lozano
(2007) Embodied language production: Evidence from gesture, speech, disfluency, and motor action. Paper presented at Embodied Sentence Processing Conference: Behavioral, Neuropsychological, and Computational Perspectives . Saerbruecken, Germany.
Comrie, B
(1976) Aspect. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cooper, R.M
(1974) The control of eye fixation by the meaning of spoken language: A new methodology for the real-time investigation of speech perception, memory, and language processing. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 84-107. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Cisek, P., & Kalaska, J.F
(2005) Neural correlates of reaching decisions in dorsal premotor cortex: Specification of multiple direction choices and final selection of action. Neuron, 45, 801-814. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Dale, R., & Duran, N.D
(2011) The cognitive dynamics of negated sentence verification. Cognitive Science, 1-14.Google Scholar
Dale, R., Kehoe, C., & Spivey, M.J
(2007) Graded motor responses in the time course of categorizing exemplars. Memory and Cognition, 35, 15-28. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Dale, R., Roche, J.M., Snyder, K., & McCall, R
(2008) Exploring action dynamics as an index of paired-associate learning. PLoS ONE, 3, e1728. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Doyle, M., & Walker, R
(2001) Curved saccade trajectories: Voluntary and reflexive saccades curve away from irrelevant distractors. Experimental Brain Research, 139, 333-344. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Duran, N.D., Dale, R., & McNamara, D
(2010) The action dynamics of overcoming the truth. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17, 486-491. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Engelhardt, P.E., Bailey, K.G., & Ferreira, F
(2006) Do speakers and listeners observe the Gricean Maxim of Quantity? Journal of Memory and Language, 54, 554-573. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Farmer, T.A., Anderson, S., & Spivey, M.J
(2007) Gradiency and visual context in syntactic garden-paths. Journal of Memory and Language, 57, 570-595. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Farmer, T.A., Cargill, S.E., Hindy, N., Dale, R., & Spivey, M.J
(2007) Tracking the continuity of language comprehension: Computer-mouse trajectories suggest parallel syntactic processing. Cognitive Science, 31, 889-909. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Farmer, T.A., Christiansen, M.H., & Kemtes, K.A
(2005) Sentence processing in context: The impact of experience on individual differences. In Proceedings of the 27th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 642-647). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Farmer, T.A., Davidow, J., & McCandliss, B.D
(2009) Integrating eye- and hand-movements to more accurately index competition-based effects in the visual worldparadigm. Poster presented the 22nd Annual Meeting of the CUNY Conference on Human Sentence Processing . Davis, CA.
Farmer, T.A., Liu, R., Metha, N., & Zevin, J
(2009) Native language experience influences perceived similarity of second language vowel categories. In N. Taatgen & H. van Rijn (Eds.), Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 2588-2593). Austin, TA: Cognitive Science Society.Google Scholar
Ferraina, S., Johnson, P.B., Garasto, M.R., Battaglia-Mayer, A., Ercolani, L., Bianchi, L., Lacquaniti, F., et al.
(1997) Combination of hand and gaze signals during reaching: activity in parietal area 7m of the monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology, 77, 1034-1038.Google Scholar
Ferreira, F., Foucart, A., & Engelhardt, P.E
(2013) Language processing in the visual world: Effects of preview, visual complexity, and prediction. Journal of Memory and Language, 69, 165-182. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ferreira, F., & Clifton, C
(1986) The independence of syntactic processing. Journal of Memory and Language, 25, 248-368. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ferretti, T.R., Kutas, M., & McRae, K
(2007) Verb aspect and the activation of event knowledge in semantic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 33, 182-196. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Fodor, J.A
(1975) The language of thought. New York: Crowell.Google Scholar
(1983) The modularity of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Frawley, W
(1992) Linguistic semantics. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Frazier, L., & Clifton, C
(1996) Construal. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Frazier, L., & Fodor, J
(1978) The sausage machine: A new two-stage parsing model. Cognition, 6, 291-325. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, J.B., & Ambady, N
(2009) Motions of the hand expose the partial and parallel activation of stereotypes. Psychological Science, 20, 1183-1188. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2010) MouseTracker: Software for studying real-time mental processing using a computer mouse-tracking method. Behavior Research Methods, 42, 226-241. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, J.B., Ambady, N., Rule, N.O., & Johnson, K.L
(2008) Will a category cue attract you? Motor output reveals dynamic competition across person construal. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137, 673-690. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, J.B., Dale, R., & Farmer, T.A
(2011) Hand in motion reveals mind in motion. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, article 59. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Gaskell, M.G., & Marslen-Wilson, W
(1999) Ambiguity, competition, and blending in spoken word recognition. Cognitive Science, 23, 439-462. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, J
(1979) The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.Google Scholar
Glenberg, A.M. & Kashak, M.P
(2002) Grounding language in action. Psychonomics Bulletin and Review, 9, 558-565. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Gold, J., & Shadlen, M
(2000) Representation of a perceptual decision in developing oculomotor commands. Nature, 404, 390-394. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Gold, J.I., & Shadlen, M.N
(2001) Neural computations that underlie decisions about sensory stimuli. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5, 10-16. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Goodale, M., Pélisson, D., & Prablanc, C
(1986) Large adjustments in visually guided reaching do not depend on vision of the hand or perception of target displacement. Nature, 320, 48-750. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Godijn, R., & Theeuwes, J
(2002) Programming of endogenous and exogenous saccades: Evidence for a competitive integration model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 28, 1039-1054. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Green, M., & Mitchell, D
(2006) Absence of real evidence against competition during syntactic ambiguity resolution. Journal of Memory and Language, 55, 1-17. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hauk, O., Johnsrude, I., & Pulvermuller, F
(2004) Somatotopic representation of action words in the motor and premotor cortex. Neuron, 41, 301-307. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hauk, O., & Pulvermuller, F
(2004) Neurophysiological distinction of action words in fronto-central cortex. Human Brain Mappings, 21, 191-201. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Havas, D.A., Glenberg, A.M., Gutowski, K.A., Lucarelli, M.J., & Davidson, R.J
(2010) Cosmetic use of botulinum toxin-A affects processing of emotional language. Psychological Science, 21, 895-900. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Henis, E.A., & Flash, T
(1995) Mechanisms underlying the generation of averaged modified trajectories. Biological Cybernetics, 72, 407-419. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hindy, N.C., Hamilton, R., Houghtling, A.S., Coslett, H.B., & Thompson-Schill, S.L
(2009) Computer mouse-tracking reveals TMS disruptions of prefrontal function during semantic retrieval. Journal of Neurophysiology, 102, 3405-3413. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Huette, S., Kello, C.T., Rhodes, T., & Spivey, M.J
(2013) Drawing from memory: Hand-eye coordination at multiple scales. PloS one, 8(3), e58464. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Jeannerod, M
(2006) Motor cognition. Oxford University Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, P.B., Ferraina, S., Bianchi, L., & Caminiti, R
(1996) Cortical networks for visual reaching: Physiological and anatomical organization of frontal and parietal lobe arm regions. Cerebral Cortex, 6, 102-119. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kalaska, J.F., Scott, S., Cisek, P., & Sergio, L.E
(1997) Cortical control of reaching movements. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 7, 849-859. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Knoeferle, P., & Crocker, M.W
(2006) The coordinated interplay of scene, utterance, and world knowledge: Evidence from eye tracking. Cognitive Science, 30, 481-529. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Langacker, R.W
(1987) Foundations of cognitive grammar: Theoretical prerequisites. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Levy, J., & Staub, A
(2012) Concurrent eye-tracking and mouse-tracking in the visual world paradigm. Poster presented at the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Psychonomic Society . Minneapolis, MN. Crossref
Louwerse, M.M
(2008) Embodied relations are encoded in language. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15, 838-844. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Luce, P., Goldinger, S., Auer, E., & Vitevitch, M
(2000) Phonetic priming, neighborhood activation, and PARSYN. Perception and Psychophysics, 62, 615-625. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Madden, C.J., & Zwann, R.A
(2003) How does verb aspect constrain event representations? Memory & Cognition, 31, 663-672. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Magliano, J.P., & Schleich, M.C
(2000) Verb aspect and situation models. Discourse Processes, 29, 83-112. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
MacDonald, M., Pearlmutter, N., & Seidenberg, M
(1994) The lexical nature of syntactic ambiguity resolution. Psychological Review, 101, 676-703. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Mahon, B.Z., & Caramazza, A
(2008) A critical look at the embodied cognition hypothesis and a new proposal for grounding conceptual content. Journal of Physiology – Paris, 102, 59-70. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Magnuson, J.S
(2005) Moving hand reveals dynamics of thought. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 102, 9995-9996.
Markman, A., & Brendl, C
(2005) Constraining theories of embodied cognition. Psychological Science, 16, 6-10. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Matlock, T., Fausey, C., Cargill, S., & Spivey, M
(2007) On the path toward understanding the dynamics of aspect descriptions in motion events. Paper presented at 48th Annual Meeting of the Psychonomic Society . Long Beach, CA. Crossref
McClelland, J.L., & Elman, J.L
(1986) Interactive processes in speech perception: The TRACE model. In D.E. Rumelhart & J.L. McClelland (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing (Vol. II, pp. 58-121). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
McKinstry, C., Dale, R., & Spivey, M.J
(2008) Action dynamics reveal parallel competition in decision making. Psychological Science, 19, 22-24. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
McMurray, B., Tanenhaus, M.K., & Aslin, R.N
(2002) Gradient effects of within-category phonetic variation on lexical access. Cognition, 86, B33-B42. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
McRae, K., Spivey-Knowlton, M.J., & Tanenhaus, M.K
(1998) Modeling the effects of thematic fit (and other constraints) in on-line sentence comprehension. Journal of Memory and Language, 37, 283-312. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Morrow, D.G
(1985) Prominent characters and events organize narrative understanding. Journal of Memory and Language, 24, 304-319. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Nazir, T.A., Boulenger, V., Roy, A., Silber, B., Jeannerod, M., & Paulignan, Y
(2007) Language-induced motor perturbations during the execution of a reaching movement. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 1607-1615.Google Scholar
Port, N.L., & Wurtz, R.H
(2003) Sequential activity of simultaneously recorded neurons in the superior colliculus during curved saccades. Journal of Neurophysiology, 90, 1887-19003. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Pulvermüller, F
(1999) Words in the brain’s language. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 253-279. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2001) Brain reflections of words and their meanings. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5, 517-524. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Pulvermüller, F., Hauk, O., Nikulin, V.V., & Ilmoniemi, R.J
(2005) Functional links between motor and language systems. European Journal of Neuroscience, 21, 793-797. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Pylyshyn, Z
(1984) Computation and cognition: Toward a foundation for cognitive science. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Rosenbaum, D.A
(2005) The Cinderella of psychology: The neglect of motor control in the science of mental life and behavior. The American Psychologist, 60, 308-317. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, T
(2002) The finger in flight: Real-time motor control by visually masked color stimuli. Psychological Science, 13, 112-118. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Sedivy, J.C., K Tanenhaus, M., Chambers, C.G., & Carlson, G.N
(1999) Achieving incremental semantic interpretation through contextual representation. Cognition, 71, 109-147. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Sheliga, B.M., Riggio, L., & Rizzolatti, G
(1994) Orienting of attention and eye movements. Experimental Brain Research, 98, 507-522. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Shen, L., & Alexander, G.E
(1997) Neural correlates of a spatial sensory-to-motor transformation in primary motor cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 77, 1171-1194.Google Scholar
Smith, J.R., Treat, T.A., McMurray, B., & Farmer, T.A
(2014) Clothing style and attractiveness influence online processing of women’s sexual interest. Poster presented at the 26th Annual Convention of the Association for Psychological Science . San Francisco, CA.
in preparation). Men’s online processing of women’s sexual interest: Generalization of dynamic models of decision making.
Snedeker, J., & Trueswell, J
(2004) The developing constraints on parsing decisions: The role of lexical-biases and referential scenes in child and adults sentence processing. Cognitive Psychology, 49, 238-299. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Song, J.H., & Nakayama, K
(2006) Role of focal attention on latencies and trajectories of visually guided manual pointing. Journal of Vision, 6, 982-99. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2009) Hidden cognitive states revealed in choice reaching tasks. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 360-366. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Spivey, M.J
(2007) The continuity of mind. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Spivey, M.J., Anderson, S.E., & Farmer, T.A
(2013) Putting syntax in context. In R.P.G. van Gompel (Ed.), Sentence processing (pp. 115-135). Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Spivey, M.J., Dale, R., Knoblich, G., & Grosjean, M
(2010) Do curved reaching movements emerge from competing perceptions? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 36, 251-254. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Spivey, M., Grosjean, M., & Knoblich, G
(2005) Continuous attraction toward phonological competitors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102, 10393-10398. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Spivey, M.J., & Tanenhaus, M.K
(1998) Syntactic ambiguity resolution in discourse: Modeling the effects of referential context and lexical frequency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 1521-1543. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Spivey, M., Tanenhaus, M.K., Eberhard, K. & Sedivy, J
(2002) Eye movements and spoken language comprehension: Effects of visual context on syntactic ambiguity resolution. Cognitive Psychology, 45, 447-481. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Spivey-Knowlton, M.J., & Sedivy, J
(1995) Resolving attachment ambiguities with multiple constraints. Cognition, 55, 227-267. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Tanenhaus, M.K
(2007) Spoken language comprehension: Insights from eye movements. In G. Gaskell (Ed.), Oxford handbook of psycholinguistics (pp. 309-326). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tanenhaus, M.K., Spivey-Knowlton, M., Eberhard, K., & Sedivy, J
(1995) Integration of visual and linguistic information in spoken language comprehension. Science, 268, 1632-1634. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Theeuwes, J., Olivers, C.N.L., & Chizk, C.L
(2005) Remembering a location makes the eyes curve away. Psychological Science, 16, 196-199. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Thothathiri, M., & Snedeker, J
(2008) Syntactic priming during language comprehension in three- and four-year-old children. Journal of Memory and Language, 58, 188-213. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Traxler, M., Pickering, M.J., & Clifton, C
(1998) Adjunct attachment is not a form of lexical ambiguity resolution. Journal of Memory and Language, 39, 558-592. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Trueswell, J.C., Sekerina, I., Hill, N.M., & Logrip, M.L
(1999) The kindergarten path effect: Studying on-line sentence processing in young children. Cognition, 73, 89-134. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Trueswell, J.C., Tanenhaus, M.K., & Garnsey, S.M
(1994) Semantic influences on parsing: Use of thematic role information in syntactic disambiguation. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 285-318. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
van Berkum, J.J.A., Brown, C.M., & Hagoort, P
(1999a) Early referential context effects in sentence processing: Evidence from event –related potentials. Journal of Memory and Language, 41, 147-182. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(1999b) Semantic integration in sentences and discourse: Evidence from the N400. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 11, 657-671. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
van Berkum, J.J.A., Brown, C.M., Hagoort, P., & Zwitserlood, P
(2003) Event-related brain potentials reflect discourse-referential ambiguity in spoken-language comprehension. Psychophysiology, 40, 235-248. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
van der Wel, R.P.R.D., Eder, J., Mitchel, A., Walsh, M., & Rosenbaum, D
(2009) Trajectories emerging from discrete versus continuous processing models in phonological competitor tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 32, 588-594. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
van Gompel, R.P.G., Pickering, M.J., Pearson, J., & Liversedge, S.P
(2005) Evidence against competition during syntactic ambiguity resolution. Journal of Memory and Language, 52, 284-307. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
van Gompel, R., Pickering, M.J., & Traxler, M
(2001) Reanalysis in sentence processing: Evidence against current constraint-based and two-stage models. Journal of Memory and Language, 52, 284-307. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Wifall, T., Buss, A.T., Farmer, T.A., Spencer, J.P., & Hazeltine, E
submitted). Reaching into response selection: Stimulus and response similarity influence central operations.
Wojnowicz, M.T., Ferguson, M.J., Dale, R., & Spivey, M.J
(2009) The self-organization of explicit attitudes. Psychological Science, 20, 1428-1435. CrossrefGoogle Scholar